Solving Basic Number ProblemsIn This Chapter

^ Writing word problems as algebraic equations

^ Making comparisons of numbers using mathematical operations

^ Finding answers requiring two numbers and choosing which of two numbers is the

Ord problems in algebra are problems that seem to take on a life of their own. You start out with a simple sentence in English and end up with an equation that, you hope, will answer the question that’s been posed.

In this chapter, you see how to use word clues to convert from English sentences to algebraic statements that can be solved and checked. The problems in this chapter aren’t really Themed — they’re all over the place — but they show how to put algebra to its best use.

Basic number problems are like the riddles or brainteasers that your fifth-grade teacher gave you to get you interested in doing numbers in your head. Your teacher may have said: "I’m thinking of a number. If I double it and subtract five, then I get a number that’s two more than the original number." The first member of your class to guess the number got a prize, like a new, spiffy-doodle pencil. In this section, you find number problems like this. (Before starting, you may want to refer back to Chapter 5 for a review of operations and their corresponding words.)

Solving Basic Number Problems

Answer

Changing from Words to math expressions

The word And Is equivalent to addition; Difference Refers to subtraction. It’s the variations on and the subtle use of these words that affect how the mathematical expression is written. Look at the following interpretations.

Solving Basic Number ProblemsThe subtleties in the wording are important in the interpretation. The implied grouping symbols need to be written when translated into mathematics. The English language can be misinterpreted (in world relations, too, of course), so it’s usually a good idea to use as many descriptive words as necessary to be sure that your mathematical meaning is understood.

Solving Basic Number ProblemsSolving equations involving one number

Many algebra word problems involve a single number and some operations performed on it. The problems of this sort are good for practice in writing algebraic equations, because you only need to worry about one unknown, or variable. For simplicity, I’ll use X For the unknown.

The translations from word problems to algebraic problems have two standard rules:

Solving Basic Number ProblemsThe variable always represents a number.

The sentence is translated directly (in order) letting the verb be replaced by an equal sign.

Solving Basic Number ProblemsThe sum of three times X And Y

Three times the sum of X And Y

The product of X And four more than Y

Four more than the product of X And Y

Five less than the sum of X And Y

Five minus the sum of X And Y

The sum of four and the square of X

The square of the sum of X And 4

Twice the square of the sum of six and Y

The square of the sum of six and twice Y

3(x + y) X(y + 4) Xy+ 4

3X + Y

Solving Basic Number Problems(x + y) – 5 5 – (x + y) 4 + X

(x + 4)2 2(6 + y)2 (6 + 2y)2

The Problem: The sum of a number and 12 is 18. What is the number?

^VLA* Let the number be represented by X. The word Sum Implies addition, so add the X And 12. Put an equal sign after the sum and before the 18. The equation you want reads: X + 12 = 18. Solving this linear equation, you subtract 12 from each side to get X = 6. Now, check your answer. Replace A number In the problem with 6, and it now reads: The sum of 6 and 12 is 18. You got it!

The Problem: The sum of a number and 12 is twice the number. What is that number?

^VLA* This problem is different from the one earlier only in the result, or the value on the right side of the equation sign. You write Twice the number Using 2x. So this equation is written: X + 12 = 2x. Subtracting X From each side, you get that 12 = X. So, checking, "The sum of 12 and 12 is twice 12." Well, sure! It just sounded more complicated in math speak.

The Problem: The sum of a number and three more than twice the number is 36. What is the number?

Vjj. VLA/V The operation that’s suggested here is addition. You want the sum of a

Number and Some stuff. You now tackle the expression Three more than twice the number. The words More than Suggests addition, too. So you write Three more than twice a number As 3 + 2X. Now, back to the original sentence, you write X + (3 + 2X) To represent the sum of a number and three more than twice the number. The parentheses aren’t really necessary. I just put them there to emphasize the two different numbers in the sum. Writing the complete equation to replace the complete sentence: X + (3 + 2X) = 36. To solve this equation, you first combine the terms on the left and get 3X + 3 = 36. Now subtract 3 from each side, giving you 3x = 33. Dividing by 3, you get X = 11. Going back to the original problem, you check to see if the sum of 11 and three more than twice 11 is 36. Three more than twice 11 is 25. And the sum of 11 and 25 is, indeed, 36.

The Problem: When five is subtracted from twice a number, the result is two more than the number. What is that number?

»tVLA/V This equation has operations on each side. Letting the unknown number be X, You write Five subtracted from twice the number As 2x – 5. Notice the order of the subtraction. You can’t reverse subtraction and get the same result. Now, for the other side of the equation, you write Two more than the number As 2 + X. You could also have written X + 2, because addition is commutative and can be written in either order. Putting the two parts together, you get the equation 2X - 5 = 2 + X. Add 5 to each side and subtract X From each side to get X = 7. Checking this with the original problem, you see that when 5 is subtracted from twice 7, you subtract 5 from 14 and get 9. Two more than 7 is also equal to 9. It checks. Do you recognize this problem? It’s the example I accused your fifth-grade teacher of giving you (flip back to the first page of this chapter).

How many goats?

Avery and Reid both are raising goats for a 4-H project. Avery says to Reid, "If you let me have one of your goats, then I’ll have twice as many goats as what you have left." Reid then counters

With, "If you let me have one of Your Goats, then we’ll have the same number of goats." How many goats does each have right now?

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Comparing Two Numbers in a Problem

Number problems can contain situations involving one, two, or even more different integers, whole numbers, or fractions. The more numbers you have to solve for, the more interesting the problem becomes. Usually, when more than one number is involved in one of these problems, there’s some sort of relationship between the numbers — some mathematical comparison. Chapter 12 is completely devoted to Consecutive integers, So you’ll find other types of problems here. Other problems requiring that you find two or more solutions are solved with systems of equations. (You’ll find systems in Chapter 17.)

Looking at the bigger, the smaller, and the multiple

Children compare their bicycles or cookies or even their fathers by saying that theirs is bigger or faster or smarter or whatever comes to mind. Mathematical expressions take over where childish comparisons leave off, using operations to combine and compare different numbers.

The Problem: I’m thinking of two numbers. One of the numbers is four less than the other, and their sum is 100. What are the numbers?

^VLA* Select a variable to represent one of the numbers, such as X. Now write an

Expression, using the X, To describe the other number. Even though it may be tempting to let the other number be represented by a new variable, Y, You stay with just one unknown or variable. Because the other number is four less than the first, you can write the other number as X - 4. The sum of the two numbers is 100, so write the sum of X And X - 4 as being equal to 100. Your equation is X + (x – 4) = 100. Remove the parentheses and simplify the expression on the left. 2x – 4 = 100. Now add 4 to each side, and you have 2x = 104. Divide by 2, and X = 52. The other number is four less than 52. So X - 4 becomes 52 – 4 = 48. The two numbers are 52 and 48.

What if you had decided, in the preceding problem, that the XShould be the smaller number, so the larger number is written as X+ 4? Note that XIs four less than X + 4. How will that affect the answer? Try adding the numbers together and solving for X. You get X+ (x+ 4) = 100, 2X+ 4 = 100, 2X= 96, and X= 48. The smaller number is 48, and the number four bigger than that is 52. You get the same two numbers! As long as you write the relationship between the numbers correctly, it really doesn’t matter which of the two you solve for first.

Solving Basic Number ProblemsThe Problem: Separate the number 20 into two parts so that five times the smaller part plus eight is equal to the larger part. What are the two numbers?

I$\M\l One way to do this problem is to hope that the numbers are whole numbers and make a list or chart, guessing what they may be. The number 20 is small enough that a chart is reasonable. A more efficient way, though, is to use an algebraic equation. You’d definitely choose the equation route if the two numbers added up to 200 or 2,000 instead of a nice, civilized 20.

Let X Be one of the parts. The sum of X And some other number is supposed to be 20. So you can write the other number as 20 – X. (If the sum of two numbers is 20, and one of the numbers is 7, then the other number is 20 – 7 = 13.)

Now you have the two parts of 20, X, And 20 – X. Back to the problem. The problem says to multiply 5 times the smaller part. You choose the smaller part to be X. Yes, you Can Do that! Writing Five times the smaller part plus eight, You get 5X + 8. This sum is equal to the larger part (the other number), so your equation becomes 5X + 8 = 20 – X. To solve the equation, add X To each side and subtract 8 from each side to get 6x = 12. Now divide each side, and you get that X = 2. If the number 2 is one Part Of 20, then the other is 20 – 2 = 18. Does this check with the original problem? Is 5 x 2 + 8 equal to 18? Doing the math, 5(2) + 8 = 10 + 8 = 18. By golly, it works!

The Problem: One number is three less than two times another number, and their sum is 21. What are the numbers?

Choose X To be one of the numbers, and then write the other number using mathematical operations to express how they compare. If the second number is Three less than two times x, You write that as 2x – 3. Notice that the 3 is subtracted from the 2X. So now you have the two numbers, X And 2X - 3. The sum of the two numbers is 21. The equation expressing this is X + (2x – 3) = 21. Combine the terms on the left to get 3X - 3 = 21. Add 3 to each side, and the equation becomes 3X = 24. Divide by 3, and X = 8. The number 8 and another number are supposed to add up to 21. That other number has to be 13. Is the number 13 equal to three less than twice 8? Yes, 2(8) – 3 = 16 – 3 = 13.

Varying the problems with variation

Solving Basic Number ProblemsThe word Variation Has a special definition in mathematics. When two numbers Vary directly, It means that one of the numbers is a Direct Multiple of the other. The numbers 7 and 21 vary directly, because 21 is three times 7. When two numbers Vary inversely, It means that one number is some multiple of the reciprocal of the other.

If Y Varies directly with X, Then Y = Kx, Where K Is some constant.

If Y Varies inversely with X, Then Y = X, where k is some constant.

Solving Basic Number ProblemsThe usual situation with variation problems is that you’ll be told that two numbers vary either directly or inversely with a specific result. Then you have to figure out what that particular variation is and how it applies to another number.

Varying directly

When two values vary directly, then one of the numbers is a multiple of the other. You need to determine what the multiplier (the value of the constant, K) Is. Formulas and applications from the sciences often use direct variation.

The Problem: If Y Varies directly with X, And Y Is equal to 20 when X Is equal to 5, then what is the value of Y When X Is 2?

First solve the direct variation equation Y = Kx For the value of K, The constant that is particular to this problem. Substituting the values of Y And X That are given, you get 20 = K5. Dividing each side of the equation by 5, you find that K = 4. Now rewrite the relationship equation as Y = 4X. When X Is 2, you solve for Y By putting 2 into the formula. Y = 4 x -2 = 8. When X Is 2, Y Is 8.

The Problem: If the square of Y Varies directly with the cube of X, And if Y Is equal to 3 when XIs equal to 2, then what is the value of X When Y Is 24?

The variation equation is written Y2 = Kx3, And you solve for K By solving the equation (3)2 = K(2)3. You get that 9 = 8K. Dividing each side of the equation

Solving Basic Number ProblemsBy 8, you see that K = 9. Now use the relationship Y2 = 9 X3, replacing the Y

With 24, to solve for X. (24) = – g X3, 576 = 9X3. Multiply each side of the

Equation by 8, and the equation becomes 512 = x3. Taking the cube root of 9

Each side, you get that X = 8.

The Problem: The volume of a sphere varies directly with the cube of its radius. If a sphere with a radius of 3 yards has a volume of about 113.10 cubic yards, then what is the volume of a sphere that has a radius of 5 yards?

The variation equation is V = Kr3, Where V Represents the volume of the sphere and R Represents the radius. Using the values given, rewrite the equation as 113.10 = k(3)3 or 113.10 = 27k. Dividing each side by 27, K Is about 4.19. Now the relationship between the volume of a sphere and its radius is written V = 4.19r3. Replacing the radius, r, with 5, you get V = 4.19(5)3 = 4.19(125) = 523.75 cubic yards.

The standard formula for the volume of a sphere is V = 3 Nr3. Letting n be

Approximately 3.1416, then 4 N = 4(3.1416) or about 4.19.

33

Varying inversely

When one number varies Inversely With another, then the reciprocal of the one is some multiple of the other number.

Carnival game

A boy was at a carnival and went to a booth confident, so he said, "You’re on!" The atten-where the attendant offered the following: "If I dant took a slip of paper, wrote something on it, write your exact weight on this piece of paper, and gave it to the boy. The boy paid him the 250. then you have to give me 250. If I can’t do What was on the paper? that, then I’ll give you $1." The boy was pretty

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The Problem: If Y Varies inversely with the square root of X, And if Y Is 9 when X Is 4, then what is the value of Y When X Is 36?

VLAiV Start with the inverse variation equation, Y = -h=. Replace the Y With 9 and

" ~ kk

The X With 4 and solve for K. 9 = YJ, 9 = "2 Multiplying each side by 2, you

Get that K = 18. Now replace the K With 18 and the X With 36 in the new inverse

Solving Basic Number Problems

Variation equation and solve for Y. y = \^ = 18 = 3.

The Problem: The rate of vibration of a taut string varies inversely with the length of the string. If a particular string is 50 inches long, it vibrates 250 times per second. How long is a string that vibrates 100 times per second?

.tVLA/v Using the inversely varying equation V = KL With V Representing vibrations and L Representing length, you solve for K 250 = 5°, 5 = 250 • 50 = 12,500. The value of K Holds for this particular string at different lengths. Now, letting K = 12,500 and V = 100, solve for L. 100 = 12,j500, L = 12,5q° = 125. The length of the string is 125 inches.

Squaring Off Using Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation has a squared term in it. For instance, x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 is a quadratic equation. An interesting feature of these equations is that many quadratic equations have two completely different solutions. In the equation X2 + 2X - 3 = 0, X Is equal to either +1 or -3. Either number works. Number problems using quadratic equations in their solutions may or may not use both answers. After solving the problem, you go back and look at the original question to see if both answers make sense.

Painting the number 9

Solving Basic Number ProblemsStefanie was hired to paint the numbers on the How many times did Stefanie have to paint the doors of the offices in a new academic building. number 9? There are 100 offices, numbered 1 through 100.

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Doubling your pleasure, doubling your fun

Number problems that need two answers or end up with two solutions have to be checked carefully. The equations used when solving these number problems frequently involve expressions relating one of the numbers to the other number using mathematical operations.

The Problem: The sum of a number and eight times its reciprocal is 6. What are the two numbers?

8. X.

First write expressions for the number and its reciprocal. Letting X Be the number, then its reciprocal is x. Multiplying that reciprocal by 8, 8 ^X Now write an equation that represents the sentence exactly. The word Sum Indicates that the number and its reciprocal are added. The word Is Indicates

Solving Basic Number Problems8

Where the equal sign goes. The equation you write is X + X = 6. Multiply each term in the equation by X, And the quadratic equation X2 + 8 = 6X Emerges. Subtract 6X From each side to set the equation equal to 0.

When solving a quadratic equation of the form Ax2 + Bx + C = 0, you either factor the expression and set the factors equal to 0 to solve for X, Or you use the quadratic formula. (You’ll find the quadratic formula in the Cheat Sheet.)

The quadratic equation X2 - 6X + 8 = 0 factors into (x - 2)(x - 4) = 0. Setting the factor X - 2 = 0, you get that X = 2. Setting the factor X - 4 = 0, you get the answer X = 4. Each answer needs to be checked. Is the sum of 2 and eight

Times its reciprocal equal to 6? Checking this out, 2 + 8 ^ 2 J = 2 + 2 =

2 + 4 = 6. It’s true, so 2 works. You’ll find that the 4 works, also.

4 + 814

4 + f:

4 + 2 = 6.

The Problem: The sum of two numbers is 7 and the sum of the squares of the two numbers is 29. What are the numbers?

^VLA* You first write the two numbers in terms of the same unknown or variable. If the first number is X, Then the other number is 7 – x. How did I pull the 7 – X Out of my hat? Think about two numbers having a sum of 7. If one of them is 5, then the other is 7 – 5, or 2. If one of them is 3, then the other number is 7 – 3, or 4. Sometimes, when you do easy problems in your head, it’s hard to figure out how to write what you’re doing in math speak. So, if the two numbers are X And 7 – X, Then you have to square each of them, add them together, and set the sum equal to 29. The equation to use is X2 + (7 – X)2 = 29. To solve this equation, you square the binomial, combine like terms, subtract 29 from each side, factor the quadratic equation, and then set each of the factors equal to 0.

X2

+ (7 – X F =

Solving Basic Number Problems29

X2 + 49

- I4x + X2 =

29

Solving Basic Number Problems2×2-

- 14x + 20 =

0

Solving Basic Number Problems

2 (X2

- 7x + 10) =

Solving Basic Number Problems

0

2 (X -

"2)(X - 5) =

0

When X - 2 = 0, you get that X = 2. Subtracting 7 – 2 for the other number, you get 5. The square of 2 is 4, and the square of 5 is 25. The sum of 4 and 25 is 29, so the 2 works. You don’t have to check the other solution from the quadratic equation, because X - 5 = 0 gives you the number 5. Both solutions work and are just repeats of one another. But sometimes the numbers that appear as the two solutions aren’t the two numbers that answer the problem.

The Problem: The product of two integers is 48, and one of the integers is two less than the other. What are the two numbers?

48

^VLA/V If one of the numbers in the product is X, Then the other number is .

Writing that one number is two less than the other, you can either write an equation where one of the numbers equals the other minus 2 or where one is equal to the other plus 2. It doesn’t really matter, because you’d be writing a statement making one side two more than the other. One equation you may

48

Use to solve this problem is X = – + 2. Multiply each term by X And solve the equation.

48

X = ~ + 2 X2 = 48 + 2x X2 – 2x – 48 = 0 (X – 8)(X + 6) = 0

If you let X - 8 = 0, you get that X = 8.

The other number is found by dividing 48 by 8, so you get that the other number is 6. And the number 6 is 2 less than 8. The other factor of the equation gives you that X + 6 = 0. The value of X This time is -6. The -6 doesn’t work with the 8, because the product of -6 and 8 is -48, and the two numbers are different by 14, not 2. But what about the -6? If it’s one of the numbers, then dividing 48 by -6 you get -8. The product of -6 and -8 is 48, and the -8 is two less than -6. So there are two different sets of answers, each with the two numbers required.

Guessing the money in the box

A new television game show starts out by eliminating contestants from the audience by having them guess the amount of money in four different boxes. One hundred contestants are shown the four boxes and told to guess which box has $1, which has $5, which has $1,000, and which has $10,000. Those who guess all four boxes correctly get to come on stage for round two.

When the entries are tallied, the game-show host announces that 50 people have none correct, 20 people have one correct guess, and 15 people have two correct. Those who got three correct would be given $100 each, and those who got all four correct would get to come up on stage to compete again. How many people got to come up on stage?

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Disposing of the nonansWers

Solving Basic Number ProblemsQuadratic equations may yield two different answers. Sometimes both answers work in a word problem. But in some instances, only one works or neither of the answers actually answers the question. Just because you can solve a quadratic equation for a correct answer to the equation, it doesn’t mean that what you get will solve the original question. The question may be unsolvable.

The Problem: The square of a positive number is six more than five times that number. What is the number?

Tf\Ml Let the number be represented by X. The square of X Is written x2. The expres-‘ 0¥\ Sion Six more than five times the number Is written 6 + 5x. Put an equal sign §^Xt ) Between the two expressions, to represent the Is, And you have X2 = 6 + 5x. ^Imlw Subtracting 6 and 5x from each side, X2 - 5x – 6 = 0 factors into (x – 6)(x + 1) = 0. When X - 6 = 0, you get the answer 6. The number 6 squared is 36, and six more than five times 6 is 6 + 30 = 36. The other factor gives you that X + 1 = 0, or X = -1. You don’t consider this answer, because the problem asks for a positive number. This problem has just the one answer.

The Problem: One positive integer is three more than twice another positive integer, and the difference of their squares is nine. What are they?

^VLA/V The two numbers are represented by X And 3 + 2x. Their squares are X2 And

Solving Basic Number Problems

(3 + 2x)2. Their difference can be written as either X2 - (3 + 2xJ2 or (3 + 2xJ2 – x2. Either works. I’m going to use the second version, because I don’t want to have to distribute the negative sign over the three terms in the square of the binomial. Writing that the difference is equal to 9, (3 + 2X)2 - X2 = 9.

(3 + 2x)2 – X2 = 9 9 + 12x + 4×2 = 9 3×2 + 12x = 0 3x (X + 4) = 0

When you set 3X= 0, you get that X= 0. When X+ 4 = 0, you get that X= -4. Neither of these numbers works in the original problem, because you need a Positive Integer, and neither is positive. This problem has no answer. Even though the quadratic equation has solutions, neither works with the question.

Chapter 12

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeIn This Chapter

^ Recognizing when you can enroll in Part D without incurring a late penalty

^ Confirming some last-minute items before signing up

^ Understanding the process of enrolling in a Medicare drug plan

^ Figuring out why your enrollment may be held up or rejected

#«^hew! The hard part’s over. You’ve chosen a Part D plan — either a

Stand-alone drug plan or a Medicare health plan that comes with drug coverage. In contrast, signing up for that plan’s usually a cakewalk.

In this chapter, I assume you’re joining Medicare Part D for the first time. Even so, people may be plunging into the Part D pool from a number of points, so I consider these different circumstances in explaining when to enroll in a plan. Then I suggest some last-minute checks you can — and should — make Before Signing up. After that (at last!), I show you how to enroll and give you some tips on the process. Finally, I explain how an enrollment application may occasionally be delayed or denied.

Stay Informed: Knowing the Right Time to Enroll

The right time to enroll in Part D is when you can sign up without incurring a Late penalty — extra payments that add to your premiums for as long as you stay in the program. In Table 12-1, the white area shows when you can enroll in Part D for the first time to avoid a late penalty. The shaded area shows when you can sign up if you delay and miss these deadlines, or deliberately drop your current drug coverage — in which case you should probably prepare to face a late penalty.

Table 12-1

When to Enroll in Part D for the First Time

Circumstance

Enrollment Period

When You Can Enroll (To Get Coverage and Avoid a Late Penalty)

First joining Medicare at age 65 (with no other creditable drug coverage)

Initial

Enrollment

Period

(IEP)

Any time in the seven-month period that begins three months before the month you turn 65 and ends three months after it. Sooner rather than later — preferably no later than halfway through the final month of your IEP.

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeFirst joining Medicare because of disability (with no other creditable drug coverage)

Initial

Enrollment

Period

(IEP)

Any time in the seven-month period that begins three months before the month you receive your 25th disability check and ends three months after it. Sooner rather than later — preferably no later than halfway through the final month of your IEP.

After losing creditable drug coverage (through no fault of your own)

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First Time

Special

Enrollment

Period

(SEP)

Any time within the 63-day SEP that begins when you receive notice that your current drug coverage will end Or When it actually ends (whichever is later). Make sure Part D coverage starts Before The 63 days are up.

Returning to the U. S. after living abroad

Initial

Enrollment

Period

(IEP) or

Special

Enrollment

Period

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First Time

(SEP)

If you turned 65 while abroad, any time in your seven-month IEP — from three months before the month of your return to three months after it. Otherwise, any time within the 63-day SEP that begins on the day of your return to the U. S. Make sure Part D coverage starts Before The 63 days are up.

After being released from prison

Initial

Enrollment

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First Time

Period

(IEP) or

Special

Enrollment

Period

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First Time

(SEP)

If you turned 65 while incarcerated, any time in your seven-month IEP — from three months before the month of your release to three months after it. Otherwise, any time within the 63-day SEP that begins on the day of your release. Make sure Part D coverage starts Before The 63 days are up.

After missing any of these deadlines

Annual

Enrollment

Period

(AEP)

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeOnly during the AEP from November 15 to December 31 each year. (You’ll pay a late penalty based on any months without coverage.)

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First Time

Circumstance

Enrollment

When You Can Enroll (To Get Coverage and

Period

Avoid a Late Penalty)

After delib-

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeAnnual

Only during the AEP from November 15 to

Erately

Enrollment

December 31 each year. (You’ll pay a late pen-

Dropping

Period

Alty based on any months without coverage.)

Creditable

(AEP)

Drug cover-

Age

In the following sections, I describe the three kinds of enrollment periods in Table 12-1 in more detail and explain why you shouldn’t wait until the last minute to enroll in a Part D plan. For the full scoop on how you can avoid the late penalty, head to Chapter 8.

Distinguishing among different enrollment periods

Medicare permits three types of enrollment periods:

Initial enrollment period (IEP): Medicare assigns you a seven-month IEP around the time of your 65th birthday or, if you’re younger and have a disability, around the time you receive your 25th Supplemental Security Income (SSI) check. You can use this time frame to sign up for Medicare Parts A and B, according to your circumstances, as explained in Chapter 1. You can also sign up at this time for a Part D plan if you don’t have Creditable drug coverage. Basically, this term means drug coverage from elsewhere (like an employer or union) that’s considered at least as good as Part D. (Still baffled? Take a look at Chapter 6, which covers creditable drug coverage in detail.) If you lived abroad or were in prison at the time of your 65th birthday, you get a special IEP, also lasting seven months, to sign up for Part D upon your return to the U. S. or upon your release, as explained in Chapter 8.

Special enrollment period (SEP): Medicare allows you an SEP to join Part D in certain circumstances — if you lose creditable drug coverage through no fault of your own or have an unavoidable break in coverage. You get an SEP if your employer terminates your drug benefits or reduces coverage so it’s no longer creditable. You also receive an SEP if you turned 65 before moving abroad or going to prison and want Part D coverage after your return or release.

If you’re eligible for an SEP, all you have to do is sign up with your chosen Part D plan and make sure that your coverage starts within the allotted time. You Don’t Have to apply for an SEP in any of the circumstances shown in Table 12-1.

Annual enrollment period (AEP): If you don’t have creditable coverage and fail to sign up for a Part D plan before your IEP or SEP expires, you can’t sign up for a plan until the next AEP that starts November 15 and ends December 31. As a result, you’ll be without drug coverage until January 1 and will face a late penalty. Also, if you deliberately dropped creditable drug coverage (instead of losing it involuntarily), you can sign up for Part D only during an AEP.

If you qualify for low-cost drug coverage under Part D’s Extra Help program (see Chapter 5), you can enroll in a Part D plan any time you want during the year. Your coverage starts on the first day of the month after you enroll. You won’t incur a late penalty, even if you sign up late.

Recognizing why you shouldn’t sign up at the last minute

Your Medicare prescription drug coverage begins on the first day of the month after you enroll in a plan. Technically, you can sign up on the very last day of an initial or annual enrollment period (for example, December 31) and still be covered the next day (in this case, January 1).

But — and this is an alert for the chronic procrastinators — putting off enrolling until the last minute isn’t the best idea. In fact, Medicare recommends signing up at least two weeks before your deadline. Here’s why:

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First Time

I The plan needs time to verify the information you provide on the

Enrollment form (such as your eligibility to receive drug coverage) or to get back to you if the information is incomplete (see the later section "If your enrollment is delayed" for more).

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeI You want to be able to mosey over to the pharmacy and pick up your meds without hassle after your Medicare drug coverage begins. Giving your Part D plan enough time to upload your data into the computer system increases the odds of this process going smoothly. (Flip to Chapter 14 for the basics on filling your prescriptions.)

I If you have a special enrollment period, you must receive Part D coverage before the 63 days are up to avoid a late penalty. If you wait longer than 60 days to enroll, you can incur a penalty, depending on where your SEP falls in the calendar, as explained in more detail in

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeChapter 8.

I Here is a different reason for signing up as early as you can: If you have a seven-month IEP and enroll in a Part D plan during the First three months Of that period, your coverage starts on the first day of the month in which you turn 65 or in which you become eligible through disability — even if those dates fall at the end of the month.

Play It Safe: Making a Few Final Checks before You Sign Up

Yes, I know — you’ve had enough of all this rigmarole by now and just want to join the darned plan! I sympathize. But remember that after you’re enrolled, you’ll probably be locked into the plan for the whole year. So I don’t feel comfortable saying, "Okay, go ahead," without suggesting a few practical, final precautions. Following them is entirely up to you, of course, but playing it safe never hurts, and sometimes it pays off big-time.

Make sure you live in the plan’s service area. If you live outside this area, your enrollment won’t be accepted.

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeKeep the plan details as a record of why you chose the plan. If you

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeChose it from the online Medicare Prescription Drug Plan Finder, print out all the details that show your likely costs and keep them safe. If you called the Medicare help line for the same information, keep the printout the customer rep sent you. You need this record if, after enrollment, you believe the plan’s charging more for your drugs than it quoted on the plan finder and you want to change to another plan as a result, as explained in Chapter 17.

Double-check the details of your costs under the plan. Make sure the drug information you entered into the plan finder is correct, as I describe in Chapter 10. If the details you entered — especially each drug’s dosage and how often you take it — aren’t accurate, the quoted costs aren’t going to be accurate either. Verify your likely costs by looking at your printout and/or calling the plan.

I Make sure that this plan is the one you want and that you understand its conditions. This check is especially important if you chose this plan on the advice of a salesperson or insurance agent, or from marketing materials sent through the mail. If you’re not sure this plan is "the one," call it — not the salesperson — to confirm you understand exactly what you’re buying. When people are misled into joining an inappropriate plan, it’s often because they didn’t fully understand the plan’s conditions and consequences, as explained in Chapter 11.

If the plan is a Medicare HMO or PPO, make sure it includes drug coverage. If you join an HMO or PPO that doesn’t cover drugs, you won’t be able to get drug coverage any other way for the rest of the year, as I describe in Chapter 9.

If the plan is a Private Fee-for-Service plan or a Medicare Cost plan, confirm that it includes drug coverage. If it doesn’t, and you want drug coverage, you should choose and enroll in a stand-alone Part D plan before your enrollment period expires. The same is true of Medicare Medical Savings Account plans, which don’t cover drugs.

If you chose your plan through a search of Medicare’s online plan finder, you won’t have to verify whether the plan is in your service area or includes drug coverage. Because you must enter your zip code at the beginning of this search, all the plans that appear on-screen are available in your area, and all of them cover prescription drugs. Otherwise, you can call Medicare at 800-6334227 to check these details.

Take the Plunge: Enrolling in a Plan

Actually enrolling in a plan is the easy bit. You still have choices on how to do it, but they’re simple ones. The process is the same whether you’re enrolling in a stand-alone prescription drug plan (PDP) or a Medicare health plan that includes drug coverage (MAPD). All you need are your Medicare ID number and the name of the plan you want to join. Then you can sign up, or a legal representative can do so on your behalf, in any of the following ways:

W Calling Medicare’s help line toll-free at 800-633-4227: Tell the customer representative you want to enroll in a Part D plan. Have at hand your Medicare ID number and the name of the plan.

W Visiting Medicare’s Web site at Www. medicare. gov: On the home page, look for a menu headed Prescription Drug Plans in the top right-hand corner and click "Enroll." Doing so takes you to the Medicare Part D enrollment center. Most plans allow enrollment through the center, but a few may not. If your chosen plan doesn’t, the customer representative at the center can give you that plan’s phone number.

I Calling the plan directly: You can find the plan’s customer service number in its marketing materials, on its Web site, or on the top right of its plan details page (if you chose the plan on Medicare’s plan finder or asked Medicare to mail you details of the plan).

I Visiting the plan’s Web site: If the plan offers online enrollment (not all do), you can find its Web site address in its marketing materials and on the top right of its plan details page on Medicare’s online plan finder. Or you can do an Internet search for the plan’s name.

I Completing a paper application: Call the plan and ask it to send you an application. Fill out this paperwork, sign it, then mail or fax it to the address or number provided.

And that’s it! Well, almost. Whichever way you choose to sign up, you’ll be asked a number of questions you must answer before your enrollment can be completed. Be prepared by having this info ready:

I Your name, address, and phone number

I Details of your Medicare coverage, as shown on your Medicare ID card

4

Details of any other drug coverage you may have

Circumstances indicating that you may qualify for Extra Help

How you want to pay your premiums

If you live in a long-term care facility, such as a nursing home

A Part D plan can’t ask you for your bank account or credit card information during the enrollment process, regardless of whether you enroll on a paper form, by phone, or online.

Enrollment is a legal contract between you and the plan. So if you can’t manage the enrollment process yourself, either through incapacity or illiteracy, the person who enrolls you must be someone who has the authority to do so under your state law. This person can be a legal representative, a court-appointed guardian, or a family member or caregiver who has Durable power of attorney — that is, someone authorized to make medical decisions on your behalf. When making the enrollment request — whether on paper, online, or on the phone — your representative must attest that she has the appropriate legal authority and can show documentary proof if the plan requests it. She must also provide her contact information.

In the following sections, I tackle in detail three important issues that may arise during the enrollment process.

Grasping the importance of your address

No, your Medicare prescription drug plan doesn’t care a scrap whether you live in a mansion or a minivan. But the address you provide determines

I If you live in the plan’s service area: No plan will accept your enrollment if you don’t live in its service area. For stand-alone drug plans, that means living in the state the plan serves. For Medicare health plans, this area is defined as the region (a state, county, or zip code) that the plan serves. Even for plans that don’t have defined service areas, you must sign up for the one that’s offered in the area where you live.

I Where your permanent residence is: You can’t be enrolled in two plans at the same time, so if you live in different states during the year, you can’t have one plan per address. When enrolling in a plan, you must give the address of your Permanent Or Primary residence — the place considered to be your normal home (for example, the one used on tax forms). If you provide a post office (PO) box number as your address, the plan must contact you to confirm that you live in its service area.

If you’re homeless or don’t have a fixed address, the Part D plan you want may accept the address of a shelter or clinic, a PO box number, or anywhere else that you receive mail.

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeDeciding how to pay the premiums

When enrolling, you’ll be asked how you want to pay your monthly premiums to the plan. Here are your options:

I Ask the plan to bill you directly and pay the premiums every month by check, money order, or credit card.

W Have the premiums deducted automatically from your monthly Social Security checks. (The plan arranges this deduction for you.)

I Agree for the premiums to be automatically sent to the plan each month by Electronic Funds Transfer from your bank, or charged to your credit card. (The plan will ask you to fill out and return a form, along with a voided check from your bank account or your credit card details.)

Many people choose to have their plan premiums taken out of their Social Security checks, in the same way that Medicare Part B premiums are deducted. But this payment method can cause difficulties. There have been many instances of Social Security failing to make plan premium deductions for the first two or three months, and then taking them all out of a single check. Or, in the case of people who’ve switched from one plan to another, deducting two premiums rather than one for several months. Similar errors can occur in automatic payments from a bank account or credit card.

Disclosing other drug coverage you have

During the enrollment process, you’ll be asked whether you have any other drug coverage — for example, coverage from an employer or union, veterans or military benefits, private individual insurance, or a State Pharmacy Assistance Program (SPAP). The Part D plan needs this info for two main reasons:

W To protect you: In some cases, joining a Part D plan can automatically cancel your other medical and drug coverage, as explained in Chapter 6. If you have creditable drug coverage from elsewhere, the plan may contact you to confirm that you understand the consequences of joining Part D. You’ll have 30 days to respond. If you don’t respond within this time frame, your enrollment will be denied, as I explain later in this chapter.

W To coordinate your benefits properly: Listing any other benefits you’re entitled to means that the plan can log them into its computer system so that when you go to fill your prescriptions, the pharmacist knows what to charge you and whom to bill. Otherwise, you may pay more than you should. I explain more about how this coordination of benefits works (and how it sometimes doesn’t) in Chapter 14.

Don’t Give Up: Understanding Why Your Enrollment May Be Delayed or Denied

Your enrollment isn’t complete until your chosen plan accepts it. Within ten calendar days of receiving your enrollment request, the plan must send you one of these items:

W A notice acknowledging your completed application, together with a copy of it, and details about the plan’s costs, benefits, and conditions

W A request asking for more information to complete the application

W A notice saying your application has been denied

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeIf you receive only the acknowledgment, your enrollment probably will be confirmed very soon, and you’ll receive your membership card and Evidence of Coverage, as explained in Chapter 13. Read the following sections if your plan sends you either a request for more information or a denial notice.

If your enrollment is delayed

Enrollment can be delayed if

W You haven’t completed all the information required on the enrollment form, and the plan needs to get back to you

W You don’t submit additional information as soon as you’re asked

W Medicare doesn’t immediately confirm that you’re eligible

W The plan discovers you have coverage from elsewhere (such as employer or union health benefits) and contacts you to be sure you understand the consequences of joining the plan

IJ$jAB££ In all of these cases, the plan will contact you either by mail or phone. So it’s important to look out for a letter from your plan, or to return messages it has left on your answering machine. If you’re asked for more information and don’t provide it within 30 days, the plan has no choice but to consider your application incomplete and reject it.

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First Time

What if your enrollment’s delayed past the date when your coverage should begin? In this situation, the plan covers you until the matter is resolved. (During this time, you can use a copy of your enrollment form or the plan’s acknowledgment as proof of coverage at the pharmacy until your plan membership card arrives, as explained in Chapter 13.) But if your enrollment is ultimately denied for any of the reasons in the next section, you’d have to repay the plan for any services used.

If your enrollment is denied

If you’re in Medicare, you have an absolute right to Part D coverage. So if a plan turns you down, you need to know why. Here are the possibilities:

W Your eligibility for Medicare can’t be found in the official records.

W You didn’t answer all the questions on your enrollment application, didn’t complete it within the required time, or failed to respond to the plan’s request for additional information.

W You don’t live within the plan’s service area.

W Your enrollment period has expired.

W You applied outside the time frames for initial or annual enrollment, and you don’t qualify for a special enrollment period.

W You have creditable drug coverage from an employer or union, and you didn’t respond within 30 days to the plan’s request for confirmation that you understand how joining Part D can affect this coverage.

Signing Up for a Part D Plan for the First TimeW You’ve applied to a Medicare Advantage plan but don’t have Medicare Part A and Part B. (Both are required for MA plans. To join a stand-alone Part D plan, you need only one or the other. To join a Medicare Cost plan, you need only Part B.)

W You’ve applied to a Medicare Advantage plan but already have end-stage renal disease. (ESRD patients can’t join an MA plan.)

W You’ve applied to a Medicare Advantage plan that isn’t currently accepting new enrollees.

W You’ve applied to a Special Needs Plan but don’t fall within the category of people it serves, as explained in Chapter 9.

W You’ve applied for a Medicare Medical Savings Account plan but don’t meet its eligibility requirements, as explained in Chapter 9.

If your enrollment’s denied, the Part D plan or Medicare must send you a letter explaining why. You don’t have the right to appeal against an enrollment denial. But if you think the given reasons are incorrect, call the number on your denial notice as soon as possible. Provide information showing why you think the denial is incorrect. If that doesn’t work, contact your regional Medicare office to explain the problem. (For the office number, call Medicare at 800-633-4227.) You can also get expert advice and help from your State Health Insurance Assistance Program (SHIP) or the Medicare Rights Center; see Appendix B for contact info.

Part IV

Putting the Moves TogetherIn This Chapter

► Setting up

Putting the Moves Together

► Oil’s well that ends well

► Massage rules

► The massage

• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••ft*

M Was recently watching an episode of the sitcom Friends on TV, and one of *C the main themes of the show concerned the effects of massage on friendships and relationships. The Monica character thought she gave a great backrub, but her boyfriend Chandler thought otherwise. The whole show centered on how he should break the bad news to her.

We humans are sensitive creatures, and when we give something as personal as a massage to someone else, we’re making ourselves vulnerable to his or her judgement. What if they don’t like our technique? What if they don’t like Us?

When you give of yourself through massage, it’s natural to be afraid of what people may think and to wonder, secretly, if you’re doing it Right Or if you’re Good enough.

I think you should forget all about that stuff. Your massage abilities are not something to be proud of, or ashamed of. Your abilities are something you should share.

As long as you tune in and become sensitive to your partner, you can give a good massage. The idea is not to focus on Being Good, but to focus on Doing Good.

If Monica had not been so proud in the beginning, she wouldn’t have forced her own concept of what she thought was good onto her boyfriend, which set the stage for her to feel rejected and ashamed later.

Be sensitive. Tune in. Do good. If you do these things, you never have time to worry about whether you’re good or not. As long as your heart is into what you’re doing, you’re guaranteed to do it the Right way.

Setting Up

Putting the Moves TogetherFirst, you need to go over just a few preliminaries to make sure you’re set up and ready to go. I assume that you’ve created a suitable Inner chamber For your massage experience and that you’ve practiced a few moves from Chapter 10. You know what to do and what not to do, and now you just have to get yourself ready and do it.

Table far one)

One thing you may notice is that the massage in this chapter is being given on the floor. It’s pretty much guaranteed that you have a floor available someplace to work on, right? But there’s a good chance you don’t have a massage table like the ones the pros use. For those of you not familiar with them, massage tables are oblong, folding, padded tables. Most of them have legs of adjustable height, like the one in Figure 11-1. These tables are great tools, and if you get serious about massage at some point, you may want to consider investing in one. New ones cost a few hundred dollars.

Figure 11-1:

Massage tables look like folding, adjustable-height, oblong, upholstered card tables.

The floor can be quite a comfortable place to get a massage, especially if you add a few pillows, a sofa cushion or two, plus a sheet and towels, as you can see in Figure 11-2.

Putting the Moves TogetherFigure 11-2:

You can create a perfectly comfortable massage space on the floor.

…….;■„■;

Many massages have been given on beds, but in those cases the massage often leads to other activities — like sleeping! That’s right, it’s very tempting for the giver to just roll over and lounge around instead of working like he should. When you do give a massage on a bed, arrange some towels near the foot or along one edge, so that you don’t have to be up on the bed yourself the whole time you’re giving the massage.

Sheets, toutets, and so on

Don’t use your best sheets and towels to do a massage on because the oils and creams can leave stains and a musty oil smell behind. Also, the color white seems to show off oil stains the most. Many spas use darker colored linens, like green or blue^for this reason.

Other things you may want to have around include heating pads, blankets, bottle warmers, and other such comfort-creating devices. Nothing’s worse than getting a massage and not being able to concentrate on how good it feels because you’re shivering the whole time.

^ALЈ#^ It’s also a good idea to have some extra pillows to use as Bolsters For support

Beneath your partner. Massage pros use specially made bolsters, as men-/ rvCkJ * tioned in Chapter 8, but you can use normal pillows just as effectively. If you use one of your nice pillows, it’s a good idea to cover it with a towel to keep it from getting stained by oil.

Oil’s Welt That Ends Wett

Yes, it’s true. Massage can be an oily endeavor. In fact, in some countries, such as India, oil plays a major part in the whole procedure, and about half way through a massage people in Delhi end up glistening with a layer of lubricant. This is okay (as long as you have lots of towels around to sop up the extra oil afterwards). In fact, the Indian system prescribes large amounts of oil — usually sesame oil — on purpose for its lubricating and detoxifying effects. The common wisdom in most other countries, however, is that you should use just enough lubricant to, well, lubricate.

This is how you best use oil during a massage:

1. First, choose the oil (see the sidebar later in this chapter).

2. Second, make sure the oil is not cold.

Putting the Moves TogetherWhen you apply cold oil to your partner’s skin, it may cause her to hit you or kick you, which is not desirable. The best way to warm the oil is to place the bottle in hot running water for a few minutes, or use a baby bottle warmer, until the oil is warm to the touch. Don’t microwave the oil, which can potentially overheat it, causing an equally adverse reaction from your partner.

3. Cup one palm and pour a small amount of oil into it.

Putting the Moves TogetherIdeally, you want to keep the back of your cupped palm in contact with your partner so that you maintain a constant connection. The amount of oil depends on the size of the area you are massaging, the amount of body hair in the area, and the maneuvers you plan to use. You may have to experiment a few times to get the amount right.

4. Rub your palms together for a few seconds to further warm the oil and then glide your hands over the skin, spreading a smooth layer of oil over the whole surface you are massaging.

The correct amount is the amount that leaves the skin lubricated, but no puddles of oil or "greasy" spots.

Getting creamed

Putting the Moves TogetherSkin creams and lotions are a good alternative to oil, and in fact many professional massage therapists would not be caught using anything else. Cream absorbs more quickly into the skin

Than oil, so you don’t slide around so much. Good ones leave a lubricating layer that makes it easy to work. A lot of pros choose a brand called Biotone.

Putting the Moves TogetherBattle placement

There is an age-old feud that has gone on between massage therapists for decades over where to place the oil bottle during the massage. I know that this may seem silly to you, but you can rest assured that it’s a debate taken very seriously by otherwise intelligent adults. There are basically two camps — those that propose placing the bottle next to the person, where it’s handy but liable to get knocked over; and those that propose keeping the bottle out of harm’s way, on the floor for example, where it’s harder to reach but less likely to get kicked or spilled. Some people go as far as to keep their oil bottles in a specially made holster strung around their waist like a six-gun. This gives the average massage therapist a Wyatt Earp kind of look that is perhaps not ideal for inducing relaxation.

Putting the Moves Together

Where should you put the bottle of oil during a massage? In my professional opinion, speaking as a massage therapist who’s been working in the field for almost 20 years, it doesn’t really matter. Whatever’s most comfortable for you is best.

Putting the Moves Together

The type of bottle (and especially the cap) does matter, though. You can make things much easier for yourself if you choose a squeeze-top type cap that pours a tiny bit of oil at a time. Pump tops work well, too. If you use a wide-mouth opening, chances are you may end up with oil all over the place, especially if you have your massage area dimly lit with candles.

\laur atfn alt blends

You can incorporate the concepts of aromatherapy into your massage by adding a few drops of Essential oil To the oil you’re already using, which is then called the Carrier oil. Typical carrier oils include grapeseed, sweet almond, jojoba, avocado, and sesame, which are all good as a base for the essential oils. To make your own aromatherapy oil, blend two dozen drops of essential oil with 2 ounces of carrier oil. For added aromatherapy benefits, place a few drops in a Diffuser To fill the room you’re in with the same scent you’re using for the massage, as I suggest in Chapter 9.

Table 11-1 lists the essential oils I use in my spa therapy workshops and a description of their basic effects:

Table 11-1

Essential oils

Oil

Properties

Cedar

Reduces fluids in body tissues, diuretic. Warming in baths.

Clary sage

Balances female hormones. Good for scalp problems.

(continued)

Table 11-1 (continued)

Putting the Moves TogetherOil

Properties

Putting the Moves TogetherEucalyptus radiata

Excellent for lungs, respiratory system. Muscle tonic.

Geranium rose

Balances the skin by affecting sebum. Balances emotions, too.

Putting the Moves TogetherJuniper

Calming and purifying.

Lavender

Putting the Moves TogetherAnti-bacterial (first-aid kit in a bottle), calming, good for skin.

Lemon grass

Stimulates digestion. Antiseptic, detoxifies lymph. Uplifting.

Putting the Moves TogetherOrange

Mood elevator.

Peppermint

Stimulates alertness. Good for headaches, colds.

Pine

Pain killer. Natural deodorant.

Rose

Excellent for the skin.

Rosemary

Hair tonic. Astringent. Good for oily skin.

Sandalwood

Grounding and relaxing. Spiritually uplifting. Aids aging skin.

Tea tree

Antiseptic, antifungal, antibacterial. Good for the skin.

Vetiver

Grounding and calming.

Ylang ylang

Aphrodisiac. Relieves tension/stress. Balances dry skin.

The Rules for Giving Massage

Just as there were some rules for receiving, there are rules for giving, too. For the most part, these are things I’ve mentioned all along throughout the previous chapters, but it helps if you review them here, right before you actually begin giving a massage.

1. Do no harm. This is the number one rule for giving a massage. Refer to Chapter 10 and make sure you’re aware of the moves that you shouldn’t make, the places that you shouldn’t press, and the conditions you shouldn’t treat.

2. Think 3-D. Refer to Chapter 4 and try to visualize the physical structures beneath the skin that you’re affecting with your hands during the massage.

3. Use your whole body. Remember to use correct Body mechanics (see Chapter 10) in order to save your own body from overexertion while applying just the right amount of pressure for your partner.

So many oils, so little time

Walk into any bath and body shop or health food store and you see at least a dozen choices in massage oils. Which is the best one, you ask? Is it the special formula designed by the spiritual healer Edgar Cayce who "received" the recipe while in a trance? Or is it the "mango tango" scented blend that your favorite boutique down the street recently released?

Several oils available straight from the shelf in your local grocery store are usable, if not ideal, for massage. Almond oil is used in spas around the world, and you can use sesame oil and olive oil, too. But the special oils formulated just for massage really are better. They have more nutrients for the skin, and they create just the right amount of lubrication. In my opinion, it’s worth the extra money you spend to get a high-quality massage oil.

There are a few things you want to look for when choosing an oil:

*<" Ingredients: Check the ingredients. A common addition to several oil blends, for example, is lanolin, which comes from an animal source and turns some people off.

Scent: Make sure the scent is not overpowering or synthetic.

Viscosity: Everyone has his or her own preference as far as the right viscosity goes. "Thin" oils, such as mineral oil, feel a little watery and spread unevenly. This is not recommended. "Thick" oils like coconut leave a "greasy" feeling. Test a little on your palm before buying to find an oil somewhere in the middle of this spectrum that works

4. Focus on the other. This is no time to be thinking about politics, sports, the weather, or your upcoming turn to receive. As fully as you can, focus on your partner, what she’s feeling, and how you can make her feel better.

5. Go out of your mind. After you figure out the moves, practice the technique, and focus on your partner with all your concentration, then you can stop thinking. That’s right. Let go of your extraneous thoughts, and even your thoughts about doing a good job.

6. Get creative. Go ahead, go crazy; just let yourself feel whatever you’re feeling and go with your intuition. Want to leave one palm on your partner’s forehead and the other on her stomach completely motionless for ten minutes? That’s probably exactly what she needs. As long as what you’re doing is generated from caring and commitment to your partner, it is going to be the right thing.

7. Let love flow. Certain people develop an ability to send a very distinct and palpable sensation of love into their fingers and palms. You can feel it when they touch you. Everyone else has the potential to develop that ability. Why not use massage as an opportunity to explore your own innate abilities to send a powerful message of caring to others through your touch and presence? There are worse ways you could spend your time.

The Massage

Okay, here it is, the moment you’ve all been waiting for. You can only talk about it for so long without realizing that massage is not really about talking, it’s about feeling. And as Bob Marley once said, "He who feels it, knows it."

Soon, you are going to be sailing away toward hours of massage bliss. All you have to do to get started is follow these five easy steps:

I> Cleanliness first Take your positions Invocation

The force, Luke, remember the force The first touch

Putting the Moves Together

Cleanliness first

You’re all set up, the mood is right, the lights are low, and now, before you do anything else, there’s one critical procedure you must follow before starting the massage — wash your hands!

Good

What does it mean to have "good hands?" It’s the one quality that mi I lions of massage lovers around the world use to describe the essence of an excellent massage therapist. As in, "Oh, that was the best massage I ever had. You have got great hands." But, because that quality is so vague, it’s a little difficult to reproduce or teach to someone else. Good hands? What does that mean?

Having good hands, as it turns out, is not really about your hands. It’s about YOU. It’s the way

Hands

You focus on your partner, the way you become sensitive to her, and the way you care. It’s also about following some very simple guidelines, which I call the "rules for giving massage." You can find those rules right here in this chapter

Putting the Moves Together

Follow these simple principles, and you may even go beyond having good hands to having "great hands" one day.

But do I have to cut my nails?

Once I was hired to present a massage workshop at a huge annual convention of nail technicians (manicurists) in Detroit. I never knew so many manicurists existed before. Demonstrating some basic massage moves on the feet of one class member, I then told them to exchange similar moves. Soon, the room was filled with sounds of pain and discomfort.

These women had nails an inch and a half long. Sharp nails. Some of them had holes drilled in the ends of their nails, and miniature charm bracelets dangled through them. It was impossible for them to practice massage.

If you have long nails, it’s going to be awfully hard for you to give a good massage. One of the first things people are told when they sign up for

Massage school is to cut their nails, and you can often tell a massage pro by her extremely short and neatly trimmed nails.

Does this mean you have to lop off your own dearly beloved nails in order to give a massage? Not necessarily. If your husband is the only person you’re going to be massaging, and he likes it when you run your long nails down his back, don’t worry about cutting them. You can improvise massage moves by using your palms and the bottoms of your fingers, keeping your nails lifted up out of the way. However, if your nails are long and your intention is to get better at massage and perform all the moves described here to their fullest, you have some serious clipping to do in your near future.

Washing cleanses away dirt and grime, and it also protects you and your partner from nasty bacteria. It’s a good habit to get into.

Take your positions

To begin the massage, you and your partner both have to be in the right positions. In the routine shown in this chapter, you start with your partner lying on her back, and you sit up near her head.

Some people are sticklers about this whole positioning issue, but I don’t believe in starting every massage in the same position every time. In fact, starting over and over again in the same position can lead to complacency and a boring massage it’s better to begin each massage where you are drawn to begin by your intuition, your partner’s suggestion, and your observation. Is she all hunched over by tight back muscles? Then by all means start the massage with her facedown, working on her back. The sequence of the massage shown in this chapter is not the only way.

Invocation

You may recall that in Chapter 5,1 describe a massage I received from Wesley, who’s a native Hawaiian massage therapist and healer on the Big Island. What I didn’t describe was the prayer Wesley used to begin the massage, sitting humbly on the floor beside me, melodiously intoning some words in Hawaiian: "Kou makou makua iloko okalani."

This invocation was meant to make both Wesley and me at one with the source of life. He learned it from his teacher, Auntie Margaret, and she in turn was taught it by her elders.

Although you may feel a little funny at first, it may be appropriate for you to say a couple of words of invocation as you’re about to start your massage. They don’t have to be in Hawaiian; something simple is fine, such as, "I summon the powers of healing and wholeness to be with us during this massage." Just say them from your heart, and you get your message across.

The Force, Luke, remember the Force

Remember, you’re not just dealing with a pile of flesh and bones here. Your partner is more than a series of points to be pushed and muscles to be kneaded. She has a magical inner spark, too. According to many massage philosophies, especially those from the East like Shiatsu, The body is filled with invisible pathways that are pulsing with this inner energy, variously known as Chi, hi, prana, universal-life-force-energy, And The-force-Luke-remember-the-force.

You can give a better massage if you simply stop for a moment at the beginning of the massage and focus on that force that exists within you and your partner. Remember the scenes from Star Wars When Luke was zeroing in on the Death Star using nothing but his intuition? The voice of his mentor was there in his head all along urging him to "remember the force." Tune into your own inner guidance as you begin the massage, and you may surprise yourself with how well you do.

Putting the Moves TogetherThe first touch

This is the crucial moment, when all of your preparation and practice is put to the test. Ninety-five percent of what your partner needs to know about your massage is completely obvious in the first split second, with the very first touch. At this juncture, you go forward into the realm of being and doing rather than thinking, and a new thing is created, the massage.

Putting the Moves Together

Reaching both hands down, place them gently and consciously on your partner’s back, as if you were touching a sleeping child and trying not to wake her. Put one up on the top of the spine near the head, and the other down by the base of the spine. Then just touch for a moment, with no need to move. You can actually summon the "force, Luke," and say your invocation at this time, too. (See Figure 11-3.)

Putting the Moves Together

Hold this position for a minute, with your hands on your partner’s spine, simply communicating your presence and loving intentions.

Then you can begin.

Note: You may notice that I haven’t included any stretches in this chapter. That’s because I explain stretches in the sports massage section of Chapter 16. This doesn’t mean you can’t use them during your full body massage, too, though. In fact, I highly recommend stretches. After you master some of the stretches, sprinkle them liberally throughout your massage for optimum effect.

The back

The back is a great place to begin a massage because many people equate massage with a "back rub." Although it looks large and solid, the back is actually prone to lots of little aches and pains, and much of the tension and everyday complaints people have can be found there. Thus the famous phrase, "Oh, my aching back." And finally, the back is the least vulnerable area to touch someone, psychologically speaking, so people are more likely to relax and "let you in" when you begin there.

1. Without moving your hands from the position they’re in, simply begin to rock your partner gently from side to side, by using the tailbone as a kind of handle for the heel of your hand. When you get good at it, you can extend your rocking maneuvers further up the back and down onto the buttocks and even the legs. The idea is to get a wave-like motion going through your partner’s body so that she starts to melt into the floor.

When you want to get someone out of the mood they were just in, and into the mood of getting a massage, nothing beats rocking.

2. People either love skin rolling, or they really don’t like it at all, so you have to experiment a little and ask your partner how it feels. Start by getting a grasp on the skin at the base of the neck between your thumb and your first two fingers, then "walk" this roll down the back, keeping it between your fingers the whole time. This takes some practice, so start with a partner who doesn’t mind playing guinea pig.

3. Use your fingertips to "hook" into the muscles alongside the spine near the tailbone. Then start vibrating your hand while dragging it with medium pressure back up toward your partner’s head, as in Figure ll-4a. Repeat this three times.

Putting the Moves Together4. This long gliding movement spreads oil and further warms up the entire area. See the section on oil earlier in this chapter for the proper oil-spreading technique. Glide down with both hands on the muscles on either side of the spine, with your fingers pointed in toward the middle. When you reach the base of the spine, swivel your fingers toward the outside and glide back up as shown in Figure 1 l-4b. Repeat this gliding four or five times, using light pressure at first and then slightly firmer pressure.

5. When you reach the base of the spine on the fourth or fifth glide, stop and apply circular rubbing all over the sacrum, or tail bone, as shown in Figure i l-4c. You may notice that when your partner is lying down this bone is tilted in such a way that it presents a relatively flat surface, so you can lean your weight forward from your partner’s head and apply pressure to it.

6. For this next move, start with your thumbs at the top of your partner’s back, one thumb on either side of the spine. Then push your thumbs down along the "ridge" of the erector spinae muscles Very slowly, With medium to firm pressure, as in Figure 1 l-4d. This should take 30 seconds or more. When you get to a tight "spot," slow down and let your thumbs sink into it even more slowly, making a mental note to revisit this area later. Remember to use proper Body mechanics So you don’t overstrain your joints while pushing. After you reach the base of the spine, glide your way back to the top.

§1

If,

Putting the Moves Together7. With your thumbs atop the shoulders and your fingers up on your partner’s back, knead the tops of the shoulders, also called the trapezius muscles, as shown in Figure 1 l-4e. While you’re doing this, you can feel for tight spots and then stop for a moment to apply pressure with your thumbs directly on those areas.

8. Switch your position to your partner’s side. Then, using medium pressure, glide your hands up the back, separating them at your partner’s shoulders and gliding back down with lighter pressure. Do this two or three times, being careful not to press too hard directly over the spine.

Putting the Moves Together9. Reaching across your partner’s back, drape your fingers over her side, then pull back slowly, actually lifting her body up a tiny bit as you engage in a nifty "reverse glide," as shown in Figure 1 l-4f.

10. With "small" kneading movements, using mostly just the fingers, reach down and pull up the muscles along the back of the neck, alternating one hand after the other, as shown in Figure 1 l-4g. You can be firm, but be careful not to pinch your partner. Also, make sure not to pull her hair when you’re doing this maneuver. You should also avoid reaching around too far with your fingertips because you may end up in an Endan-germent site On the throat.

11. Now is the time for you to really focus in on the tight spots you discovered during your thumb glide down alongside the spine. Start at the base of the spine and place your thumbs in the little groove that’s formed between the spine itself and the Erector spinae Muscles that run up alongside the far side of the spine. Then press out toward the opposite side of the back, moving your thumbs in a little reverse "J" motion over the muscle, as shown in Figure ll-4h.

Never press directly on the spine itself while you’re doing this move. Instead, keep your thumbs pressing away from the spine at all times.

The main difference between a good massage and a mediocre one is that a good massage is always custom-made for each person every time. So, customize this maneuver and apply it exactly where your partner needs it this time, seeking out the tight spots you find during your earlier gliding, and then concentrating on them.

12. With your partner’s hand lifted onto her lower back, it’s easy to see the shoulder blade, which automatically lifts up and reveals itself. A great way to release tension in this area is to run your fingers along the lifted inner edge of the shoulder blade, pressing in and down while you do so, as shown in Figure 1 l-5a. Sometimes you can feel the shoulder blade lifting even further from the back as you relax the muscles.

13. Use your thumbs to zero in on the spot that lies about midway out from the spine at the level of the armpit. It’s right at the base of the inner edge of the shoulder blade, and is usually tight on almost everyone. If you can find this spot and do a thumb press with firm pressure for 10 seconds or longer, you may feel the entire shoulder "fall" away from the back in relaxation.

Knots, and what to do with them

Putting the Moves Together

As you get used to gliding over people’s bodies with your hands, you may quickly realize that no two bodies are the same and that, in fact, the same body can even feel different on different days. Eventually, you’ll know how to distinguish a "knot" from an area of normal muscle tone. Then you can apply the techniques you find in this chapter and Chapter 10 To start relaxing those tight places.

You could easily spend an entire hour just dealing with your partner’s knots, so you have to

Decide when enough is enough, and move onto the next area. This is a tough call, because your partner’s knots and sore spots are the areas that need the most attention.

In general, during a full body massage, spend no more than 5 minutes on any particular tight spot. If you want to focus on it more later, schedule a special session just for that purpose.

14. Tap all across the upper and lower back, being careful to avoid the

Spine, as shown in Figure 1 l-5b. This is a typical way to finish massaging the back, and every body part for that matter. It feels good, but I find it sometimes disrupts the calming, soothing effect of the massage. Only use tapping if your partner wants it, or if he’s about to jump off the table to engage in some activity, in which case some serious karate chops and loose fist pounding are called for. Otherwise, stick to some soft fingertip tapping at this point, or leave it out altogether.

^fotyf 15. After you press and rub on all the major spots, it’s time to bail out of the " ^ back area, but you don’t want to make your exit too obvious, lest you

Shock your partner and cause sudden back-massage withdrawal symptoms. So make your departure from the back a gradual one and use gliding Connective strokes. See the sidebar, "Creating wholeness" later in this chapter.

Creating wholeness

You can create a better experience for your partner if you never really "finish" one part of the body. Because, if you finish, that means the clock is ticking, and the massage is slowly dripping away. It’s better to create the illusion of timelessness by connecting ail the pieces of the massage together into one whole.

So, after you "finish" the back, that doesn’t mean you shouldn’t allow your hands to move

There again. In fact, it’s a good idea to add some "connective strokes" throughout the massage so that it feels as though you never completely finish with any particular part of the body. You can even connect the front of the body to the back by reaching beneath your partner during certain moves, as you see later in this chapter.

Back of the tegs and buttocks

Putting the Moves TogetherThe buttocks contain the largest muscle in the human body, and they do a large percentage of the work. Without them, you couldn’t walk, sit, or dance the "Bump." Buttocks really deserve a lot of respect, but often they’ve been disparaged and have unfortunately become the "butt" of many off-color jokes. Don’t let this flippant attitude about buttocks keep you from spending some serious time there during your massage.

1. After you glide your way down from your partner’s back and reposition yourself by your partner’s legs, apply some oil to the entire back surface of one leg with firm gliding strokes, circling your outer hand around at the buttock and gliding more lightly back down.

2. Lift your partner’s foot, supporting it with both of your hands while applying circular rubbing all around the ankle bone with your thumbs and fingertips of both hands, as shown in Figure 1 l-6a.

It helps your partner relax if you can get her to "let go" of her lower leg and allow you to take the full weight of her limb in your hands. Take a look at the "Limp arm experiment" in Chapter 7 for a reminder on how to do this.

Be careful not to press too hard directly on the upper ridges of the heel bone right behind the anklebones, because it is a sensitive area and may be uncomfortable for your partner.

3. Before you put your partner’s foot back down, do some gentle shaking movements, using the foot as a "handle" to move the leg, as shown in Figure ll-6b. This can help relax the muscles of the entire limb, right up

Into the joints, in this case the knee and hip. Practice until just using a gentle shaking at the foot can produce a rhythmical movement throughout the body up to the head.

4. The largest muscle in the calf is actually separated into two "bellies." It feels great to run your thumbs or the tips of your fingers up the middle of the calf, separating the two sides, as shown in Figure 1 l-6c. You can also make a straight line up on either side of the middle.

Putting the Moves Together

5. While you knead the calf muscle with a back and forth motion, move your hands up and down also, so you cover the entire muscle, as shown in Figure 1 l-6d. Stop about 2A Of the way down from the knee because the calf tapers down to the Achilles tendon there and becomes too thin to knead. At that point, you can continue by squeezing the tendon between your thumb and fingers down to the ankle.

Putting the Moves Together

6. Grasping the leg just above the ankle with both hands, use the webbing between your thumbs and forefingers to create a tight seal. Then squeeze in and push up at the same time, moving slowly, as shown in Figure 1 l-6e. Stop when you reach the back of the knee. With this maneuver, you can actually help move stagnant blood out of the limb, improving circulation. If you do it correctly, this move may incite your partner to say something like, "Whoa, that’s intense!" Take this as a sign that you’re doing things right, but also make sure that you’re not squeezing too hard. There’s a fine line between intense and painful.

Remember to apply only very slight pressure over the back of the knee! And be careful to avoid any varicose veins.

7. Making your hands into fists, apply pressure with the knuckles into the back of the upper legs, called the hamstrings, as shown in Figure ll-6f. Knuckling is a form of gliding that is especially appropriate to this area because each knuckle slides between the long bands of muscles here.

8. This move feels like an ice cream sundae for the leg muscles. Knead from the top of the leg down to the knee, moving up and down three to four times. To make this move most effective, try keeping as much of your hand in contact with the skin as possible as you squeeze, roll, and push.

9. Depending upon how big any particular buttock is, you have a variety of choices of where to press, but to be most effective you have to find just the right spot. In order to do that, palpate the outer upper edge of the tailbone (sacrum), and then go straight down toward the leg half way across the buttock. This should be right in the middle. Press directly in here with thumbs, as shown in Figure ll-6g. Use your fingers, fist, or elbow at an angle perpendicular to the surface/Hold this move for 5 to 10 seconds. This move is particularly beneficial for sciatica pain.

Putting the Moves Together

Turning over

In my opinion, not enough is said about the art of turning over during massages. Often, this turn is the only physical effort a massage recipient has to make for over an hour. And, as it comes right in the middle of the experience, there’s a potential for it to be disruptive and a little jarring. For these reasons, most massage pros are quite gentle with their clients when it comes time for them to turn. In a soft, soothing voice, they say something like, "All right, Mr. Smith, I’m going to ask you to gently roll over onto your back now. Take your time."

Putting the Moves TogetherYou have to watch your wording carefully because there are those who take what you say too literally. I have one client who is a world-class athlete, and once when I asked him to "flip

Over," he literally flipped, springing a foot off the table and twisting over in midairto come crashing back down on the table, splintering one of its wooden legs.

Putting the Moves Together

When it comes time for your own partner to turn over, follow the example of the pros:

Be gentle V Speak softly

Give them as much time as they need

Putting the Moves TogetherF Assist them if necessary, offering support

Use the words "roll over" or "turn gently, please" instead of "flip"

10. Knead the thick muscles of the buttocks, particularly on the upper, outside portion, which often tends to be the most sore, as shown in Figure 1 l-6h. You have to watch where your fingers are going while you squeeze, roll, and push here, though! It’s kind of a tight area to work in.

11. Because the buttocks include the largest muscles in the body, they can withstand some heavy percussion movements. Use loose fists and firm pressure, but be sure not to pound with your fists on the tailbone, which is much more delicate. Then move the tapping down the leg, opening your fists so that you’re doing karate-chop moves. Remember to lighten up over the back of the knee!

12. Apply light fingertip brushing up the back of the leg and onto the back, then back down again. After pummeling, pressing, squeezing, and kneading your way across your partner’s back, fingertip brushing is a really good way to remind your partner how nice you are. You can extend the move from the feet all the way to the head.

After you finish the first leg, switch to the other leg and repeat. Remember, because you already connected the back with the first leg, you want to do some connecting strokes when you begin the second leg as well. So, make your initial gliding on the second leg go up and over the buttocks and onto the lower back.

Face and scalp

After your partner has turned over, you are presented with entirely different terrain to massage. The front of the body is a little more perplexing. There are more intricate surfaces to deal with, as well as more private, vulnerable, and delicate areas. Therefore, you need to be more of a diplomat while massaging the front of someone’s body. Most people allow just about anyone to give them a backrub, but when it comes time for you to touch the front of their body, they have to trust you.

^\NG/ The face, for example, is quite a private area. Although it’s exposed to the ^3fev World for all to see, it’s not there for all to touch. You have to be sensitive as you begin to massage your partner’s face. Avoid large gestures, or quick movements. All of your maneuvers here, including those you make before you even touch your partner, should be smooth, deliberate, and slow.

You probably don’t need any extra oil for the face. The oil left over on your hands from massaging the back is sufficient.

1. Start by placing your hands gently on the side of your partner’s head, thumbs resting on the forehead. This is the perfect position from which to start massaging the forehead with some thumb gliding and firm circular rubbing. First, glide your thumbs out from the middle toward the sides, starting low by the brow, making three to four lines progressively higher. Then begin making circles with your thumbs, as shown in Figure.1 l-7a, all across the forehead.

2. Leaving your hands in about the same position, begin using the fingertips instead of the thumbs. Circle your fingertips into the side of the head around the spot where sideburns would start if your partner had some, as shown in Figure 1 l-7b.

3. Using the tips of your first two fingers, trace around the edges of the bones that surround the eye — across the brow, down along the nose, and around the top of the cheek bones, as shown in Figure ll-7c. You may try a little mini-kneading along the same path with your thumbs and fingertips.

Putting the Moves TogetherIf you apply pressure very near the eyes or directly on the eyelids, make sure your partner isn’t wearing contact lenses.

4. Glide your fingertips lightly across the top and down along the sides of the nose, being careful not to block your partner’s breathing passages. At the base of the nose, near the outside edge of the nostrils, is a good place to apply light to moderate pressure and small circular rubbing, as shown in Figure 1 l-7d, which helps open sinuses in the area.

Putting the Moves Together5. Use your thumbs in an "opening" gesture to fan out across the cheeks from just under the inside corner of the eye down toward the jawbone. The pressure you apply should be light to medium.

6. At the corner of the jawbone, slightly in front of and below the ear, you find the chewing muscles. In order to palpate them, ask your partner to clench her teeth, which makes these muscles bulge slightly out to the side. Then apply circular rubbing with the fingertips, as shown in Figure 1 l-7e, all around this area. Locate the highest point on this muscle, directly in the center, and use some pinpoint pressure directly inward for 5 to 10 seconds while suggesting to your partner, "relax your jaw, let your mouth open slightly, and just breathe."

7. Use some pinch and roll kneading to walk your fingers and thumbs from the jaw muscles out onto the chin, as shown in Figure ll-7f. Glide back softly and repeat twice more.

8. Most people love for you to massage their ears. Use your fingers and thumbs to pinch and roll the ear from the lobe up around the edges to the top, as shown in Figure 1 l-7g. Repeat this twice and then tug gently for a second on the top, back, and bottom of the ear.

Putting the Moves Together

9. The scalp is often mistaken for a thin flap of skin without much potential for massage moves, but actually it’s a great place to use medium to deep circular rubbing with the fingertips, as shown in Figure 1 l-7h. Keep lifting your fingers up slightly, moving them a half-inch or so, then placing them firmly on the scalp again. During the rubbing, keep your fingers glued to the scalp and move the muscles below it over the cranium. Be careful not to pull your partner’s hair while doing this move.

Putting the Moves TogetherFavorite places

Everyone has his or her own particular favorites when it conies to getting a massage. Some swoon over an ear massage, while others go into ecstasy as soon as you lay a finger on their forehead* Oftentimes, you can find these "favorite places" somewhere on the head, neck, or face, although other areas like the hands and feet are popular, too.

Encourage your partner to communicate with you about any areas that feel particularly therapeutic or pleasurable. Then, during her next massage, spend more time focusing on the area she likes the most. Shell enjoy the sensation and appreciate you for remembering.

/ 82 Part‘""The Art of ^iving Passage

Neck and shoulders

We refer to just about anything that bothers us as a "pain in the neck." Perhaps this is because the neck is particularly vulnerable to feeling pain. Filled with delicate nerves, vertebrae, and vessels, your neck can give you pain if you simply turn your head too quickly. Massage is a great way to soothe some of the minor complaints that people experience in this area, many of which are a reaction to stress. Be especially sensitive when massaging here, "tuning in" to your partner’s muscles and letting what you find guide your movements. Sometimes, simply by adding your awareness to the equation, you can help your partner get rid of that pain in the neck she’s been complaining about.

Putting the Moves Together

1. The "shoulder swoop" move may be a little tricky at first, but after you master it you have a great tool under your massage belt. Pouring a small amount of oil into one palm, rub your hands together, then place them on your partner’s upper chest, with your fingers pointing inward, as shown in Figure ll-8a. Slide your hands outward, pivoting your palms on top of the shoulder so that your fingers end up beneath your partner’s upper back, as shown in Figure 1 l-8b. Finally, glide your hands in and up the back of your partner’s neck to the base of her head, lifting slightly while you do so, as shown in Figure 1 l-8c.

2. Slip your fingers beneath your partner’s neck, cradling her head in your hands. Then lift very gently just until you can turn her head to one side, supporting it in your bottom hand. Rock her head back and forth slightly until your partner no longer tries to hold onto her own neck muscles. You can then use the other hand to apply circular rubbing to the muscles in the back of the neck, as shown in Figure ll-8d. Move your circles up and down, and when you find a tense spot, apply some pinpoint pressure. By using both hands for different purposes (one massaging, the other cradling the head), you have extra-effectiveness with this move.

3. Still supporting your partner’s head in one hand, use the other to knead up and down the back of the neck. Practice switching the position of your hands during this maneuver until you can create a fluid sensation for your partner — left, right, left, right. This feels darn good.

4. Supporting your partner’s head with both hands, lift up and forward, bringing her chin toward the chest, as shown in Figure ll-8e. Hold this position for about 5 seconds, being careful not to twist your partner’s neck. Then slowly lower her head back down. I believe this is the only stretch you should try with the neck until you receive further training.

Putting the Moves Together

5. Pushing down with your palms, glide across the tops of your partner’s shoulders, also known as the trapezius muscles. As a more intense alternative to this move, you may try using the knuckles to glide in this area, too.

Take the muscles on top of your partner’s shoulders between your thumbs and fingers, kneading with a good amount of pressure, as shown in Figure 1 l-8f. As your fingertips reach down beneath your partner’s back, curl them up so you’re applying pressure in that area at the same time.

Now that the neck and shoulders are warmed up and relaxed, use some pinpoint pressure with your thumbs to zero in on the tight spots you find, as shown in Figure 1 l-8g. Remember to keep a straight line from your elbows and shoulders to your thumb so you don’t stress your joints.

To create a smooth transition, finish the neck and shoulder area with another shoulder swoop. Then move down onto your partner’s left shoulder and arm with a long flowing glide, which leaves you in position to begin massaging the hand.

Figure 11-8:

Taking the burden off someone’s shoulders.

Arms and hands

Arms and hands are some of the most active parts of most people’s bodies. Think about it. Even couch potatoes use their arms and hands to reach for the potato chips and open cans of beer. In fact, just about everybody is so used to doing things with their arms and hands that, at first, you may find it challenging to get your partner to "let go" in this area (see the "Limp arm experiment" in Chapter 7 for help in getting your partner to "let go"). However, this doesn’t mean that you can’t perform some spectacularly beneficial and pleasurable massage moves here.

The secret of good arm and hand massage is to make your moves smaller and to focus on the little details. Every pinkie finger counts!

A typical reaction you may get when you begin massaging in this area is, "I didn’t know my arms were so sore until you started doing that!" Good massage techniques can put vitality back into this active, expressive part of your partner’s anatomy.

1. Your initial gliding in this area spreads the oil, of course, but it also does much more. At this time, you help your partner "let go" and loosen up. You accomplish this by offering some support to the limb at the wrist and elbow while you’re gliding. This means you’re actually picking the arm up and supporting it with one hand while gliding with the other. Practice switching hands with this lift-support-glide maneuver until you get fluid with it.

2. Begin kneading the palm. You’ve already picked up your partner’s hand, so you’re in the perfect position for this move. You can flip your partner’s hand up and down to work at different angles, spreading open and squeezing between the bones of the palm.

3. You have to build up a little dexterity in your fingers in order to get this knuckle rolling technique down. One at a time, curl your fingers closed into a fist then open them back up again over your partner’s palm, as shown in Figure 1 l-9a.

4. Squeeze each finger as you pull slightly at the same time, moving up from the base of the finger to the tip, as shown in Figure 1 l-9b. Make sure to rub the sides of the fingers as well as the tops and bottoms.

5. The pressure point in the webbing between one’s thumb and index finger is especially good for helping to relieve headache pain. The best way to massage it is with direct pressure from your thumb, as shown in Figure ll-9c. Hold this pressure point, pushing in toward the bones of the hand, for approximately 5 seconds.

6. This little move feels surprisingly good. While holding your partner’s hand palm-down, you apply circular rubbing over the top of the wrists, as shown in Figure 1 l-9d. For serious wrist problems such as Carpal tunnel syndrome (CST), see Chapter 13.

7. The forearms are jam-packed with muscles all crying out for attention. In this move, you use your thumbs to trace lines straight up the forearms from the wrists to the elbows, as shown in Figure 1 l-9e. This is a deep gliding that is meant to sink down between the bands of muscle in this area.

Putting the Moves Together

There are special massage moves for the forearm that are effective on tennis elbow, and you can find out about them in Chapter 16.

8. Your kneading movements on the forearms are basically a smaller version of the ones you used on the legs, but this doesn’t mean they aren’t just as effective. Try to get as much of the muscle tissue between your thumb and fingers as possible, and remember to involve your whole body in the movement, all the way down to your hips, as shown in Figure ll-9f.

9. With your partner’s elbow bent and resting on the ground for support, encircle the arm at the wrist with both of your hands, creating a tight seal around the entire circumference. Then begin pushing up the arm Very slowly Until you reach the elbow, maintaining firm pressure the whole time. This "squeezing toothpaste through a tube" glide is great for tired, achy arms that need some renewal.

10. In order to massage the entire upper arm from one simple position, lift your partner’s arm up, supporting it at the elbow, allowing her hand to fall back toward the floor near her head. Then use your free hand to massage the upper arm. For example, in Figure 1 l-9g the left arm is supported by your left hand, allowing the right hand to massage the biceps. In Figure 1 l-9h, your right hand supports the elbow, leaving the left hand free to massage the triceps.

As you’re doing this move, make sure to keep track of where your partner’s hand is. If you’re banging it against the side of her head, it detracts from the pleasure of the experience.

Putting the Moves Together

This is a perfect position for stretching the upper arm and chest, too, and you find instructions on how to do just that in Chapter 16.

11. Grasping your partner’s hand near the wrist, shake the whole arm gently until you can see some movement way up at the shoulders, neck, and head. Try positioning her arm at three different angles to achieve a different stretch on the shoulder joint: down by her side, out at a 90-degree angle, and up by her head.

12. Finish the arm with a light fingertip glide that floats up over the shoulder to the chest, where you’re going to massage next.

Repeat this sequence on the opposite arm.

Torso

As a species, we’ve taken a big collective risk by standing erect on two feet and exposing our defenseless underbellies to the world. The front of your body, especially the abdomen, can be a very vulnerable area, and you have to be extra sensitive when applying massage moves here.

Your abdomen is the physical home of many emotional realities such as fear, anger, and intuition. That’s why we say we have a "gut instinct" about something. You’re not just massaging a stomach when you place your hands on your partner’s belly. You’re massaging her soul. This fact has been recognized by many Asian cultures, such as the Japanese, for example, who have even given this soul-in-the-belly a name: the Hara.

Putting the Moves Together

Make your movements on the chest and abdomen gentle at first, until your partner relaxes a little and allows you to massage more deeply. Keep in mind that your touch here penetrates to the deepest layers, both physically and psychologically.

1. Place your thumbs across your partner’s upper chest muscles below the collar bone, with your fingers reaching down toward his sides, as shown in Figure 11-lOa. Begin some kneading, which, as you soon discover, is a tricky maneuver to perform without causing your partner to squirm and writhe in fits of hysterical giggling. Yes, this area can be quite ticklish. Start out gingerly, like a kitten pawing a pillow, then gradually intensify, always staying within your partner’s comfort level.

Putting the Moves Together

This area can be extremely sensitive, especially on people who exercise a lot or who are overly ticklish. Be careful not to poke your fingers into your partner’s ribs or armpits. And make sure to use extra oil if your partner has a lot of chest hair.

2. Lifting your hands off the chest just slightly, begin pressing back down by using pinpoint pressure of the thumbs along a line about two inches below the collar bone, as shown in Figure ll-10b. This can have a beneficial effect on your partner’s breathing, "opening" the upper ribcage.

3. Placing your fingertips near the top of the breastbone, push in gently and then begin circular rubbing as you move slowly down toward the abdomen, as shown in Figure ll-10c. As your fingers skim over the edges of the breastbone on either side, you find ridges and valleys where the ribs attach. Make a small circle in each one of these valleys, too, as you move down.

4. Gliding on the abdomen not only spreads oil and relaxes muscles; it also aids digestion. Your large intestine runs clockwise starting on the lower right-hand portion down by your hip bone, up along your side, across

The base of your ribs, and down your left side. When you massage in this same direction (clockwise), you’re helping the digestive organs do their job. Press in with firm but sensitive pressure so your movements affect these organs as well as the muscles on top of them, as shown in Figure ll-10d.

When you get really good at circling your hands over the belly, try speeding up your movements a little by letting your left hand glide right over the top of the right each time they cross paths, without pausing to lift the left hand up. This creates a smoother flow for you and a neat sensation for your partner.

Putting the Moves Together5. Right around the navel, in the pit of the belly, is where people often store pent-up emotions. By gently touching several points here, applying just the softest pressure inward, as shown in Figure ll-10e, you can help coax the emotions out. It’s possible that your partner may sigh with relief or even begin to cry when you press here with sensitivity and compassion. This is a good time to offer nonjudgmental support and perhaps even suggest a positive image, or visualization, your partner can focus on. See the sidebar, "Visualize whirled peas," later in this chapter.

6. This move offers a chance to massage the lower back while your partner is lying face up, and it’s a nice stretch, too. Slide both hands over the waist until the fingertips slip down all the way to meet at your partner’s spine. Then curl the fingertips up to apply a little pressure as you simultaneously lift the whole lower back a fraction of an inch upwards and glide your hands back toward the abdomen, as shown in Figure 1 l-10f. Repeat this move three times.

During this move, make sure you’re not putting too much strain on your own back. Position yourself close to your partner’s side, and use your legs and hips to do the lifting.

7. Finish the abdomen with a glide that swoops around your partner’s side at the hipbone, onto the front of the legs, and then down to the feet.

Front of the tegs and feet

Think of how many miles your feet and legs have put in for you, selflessly hanging around beneath the rest of your body, taking you everywhere you want to go, seldom asking for anything in return. The average person doesn’t realize how great a good leg and foot massage feels, and so you can surprise your partner with the simple, effective techniques in this section.

You finish the full body massage on the legs and feet because this is where we stand, literally. Ending here leaves your partner feeling more grounded and "down to earth."

Feel free to spend some extra time on the feet. Although the full foot massage isn’t described until Chapter 14, you can incorporate many of those moves here as well.

1. Begin by pushing in with both thumbs on the bottoms of your partner’s foot and then "spread" the sole open as you move your thumbs out toward the side, as shown in Figure 11-1 la. Use firm pressure and repeat this move three times.

2. By using the thumb on the sole and forefinger on top of your partner’s foot, rub between the long bones of the foot, as shown in Figure 11-1 lb. You should find a "groove" between the bones that you can easily slip your finger into.

Make sure to press sideways, as well as inwards, against the foot bones.

3. Holding the top of your partner’s foot in one hand, use the knuckles of the other hand to "rake" into the arch of the foot in a continuous one-knuckle-at-a-time movement, starting with the pinkie finger, ring finger,

Middle, then index, over and over, as shown in Figure 11-llc. Done correctly, this move feels exquisite, but you have to build up considerable finger dexterity to achieve that.

4. As if you were squeezing a coin, rub each toe between your index finger and thumb, as shown in Figure 11-1 Id. Start with the little toe and progress toward the big toe, making sure to rub on the sides of the toes as well as the tops and bottoms.

5. Then, find the exact location of your partner’s shin bone, also called the tibia, and then apply firm pressure with both of your thumbs together along the outside (lateral) edge of this bone as you glide your way slowly up toward the knee, as shown in Figure 11-1 le.

6. You have to use mostly the tips of your thumbs and fingertips to knead effectively on the front of the lower leg because, as you may notice, the front of the lower leg is mostly bone. Contain your kneading/squeezing movements to the fleshy areas on either side of this bone as you move up and down from near the ankle up to the knee, as shown in Figure 11-1 If.

Putting the Moves Together

Visualize whirled peas

At many points during the massage, you can offer a visualization to help your partner relax and melt more fully into the experience. These visualizations usually incorporate three ingredients:

V* A reminder about how important it is to breathe during the experience.

Putting the Moves Together^ Some guidance about what specifics to think about during the visualization.

^ A positive message meant to uplift your partner’s state of mind.

I cover breathing pretty extensively in Chapter 7. After you have your partner breathing evenly and deeply, then if s time to suggest an image to visualize, and when it comes to visualizations, concrete is better than vague. Make the images you suggest extremely specific, including textures, colors, sounds, and even aromas.

An example of something vague to visualize is World Peace. Plenty of people may tell you to visualize it, but how do you do that? What does

World peace look like? What color is it? How big is it? How would it taste? Does it need any salt?

I personally find it much easier to imagine smushed vegetables, which perhaps explains the existence of a well-known bumper sticker that urges us to "visualize whirled peas." It may sound silly at first, but can’t you just see them there, swirling around topsy-turvy inside the blender, eventually turning to green mush as the blades increase from chop to blend to puree?

Of course, the image of pureed peas itself is not enough for a fully effective visualization. You have to include the ever-important uplifting New Age message, which in this case may well be, "Seethe color green as a vast see of tranquility. Imagine each pea as a grain of green sand on an unending beach of bliss."

Or something like that.

7. Reaching around behind your partner’s knee with your fingertips, lift slightly while making circles over the sides of the knees with your thumbs, as shown in Figure 11-llg. Use moderate pressure inward against the knee while making this move, and monitor your partner’s response closely; some people are ticklish in this area.

8. Continuing up over the knees, use your palms to glide with firm pressure in an upward direction on the front of the thigh, also known as the quadriceps muscles. Slide back down the thigh with light pressure and repeat four to five times.

9. Apply kneading to the front of the thighs. This is where you can use some really big movements, sliding your hands all the way from the inside of the thigh to the outside in a constant motion. Remember to use your whole body to create the kneading motion, not just your arms and hands. And don’t be surprised if you work up a sweat during this move.

10. Imagine a line running along the outside of your partner’s thigh from knee to hip (right where the stripe is on many warm-up suits). Starting at the knee, apply pinpoint pressure with your thumbs to a series of points along this line, as shown in Figure 11-llh. Hold each point for 3-5 seconds, then release and move up to the next point. When you reach the hip, slide back down and repeat one more time.

This area is often very sensitive on many people, so you have to be careful when pressing here. Start out softly and increase pressure gradually. You can tell if you push too hard by noticing that your partner tenses his leg. If this happens, lighten your pressure.

This is an advanced move that requires quite a bit of trust on your partner’s part. You are putting him in a vulnerable position, one leg bent at the knee, with the hip open to the side. By using your palms, press down firmly just above the knee, then glide slowly up toward the hip, as shown in Figurell-12a. For even more intensity, use your knuckles insteadof your palms. Glide your hands back down to the knee with light pressure then repeat twice more.

Putting the Moves TogetherLighten your pressure as you approach the upper thigh, which contains many delicate nerves and vessels.

Lay your partner’s leg flat again, and then glide your hands upwards over the thigh. When you reach the hip, swivel your outside hand around and slip your fingers toward your partner’s lower back, as shown in Figure ll-12b. Glide up as far as you can alongside the spine, then press your fingers up into the muscles there as you slowly pull back down toward the hip again, letting some of your partner’s weight do the work of pressing. When you reach your partner’s leg again, continue gliding down by using both hands on the back of the leg, lifting slightly to get your hands underneath. Finish your glide down at the foot.

13. Cupping the heel in your palrn, lift your partner’s leg just an inch or so, reminding him to "let go" if he tries to lift the leg for you. Shake back and forth with a vibrating motion.

14. Your last move on the leg is a light fingertip brushing down from the hips toward the feet to leave your partner feeling "grounded."

Repeat this entire sequence on the other leg.

Putting the Moves Together

The grand finale

Putting the Moves Together

As with so many things in life, like fireworks and circus acts, in massage it’s the grand finale that really counts. Sure, you can apply superlative techniques all throughout the massage; flowing from one bliss-inducing maneuver to the next in seamless perfection; but if you finish with a ho-hum squeeze of the toes and then rush off to grab a cold one from the fridge, you’re going to leave a slightly disgruntled partner behind. It’s like watching a good movie with a bad ending: All anyone can talk about is how bad the ending was, not how good the rest of the movie was.

The way you end the massage leaves a lasting impression. To make your finish the best it can be, follow these steps:

1. Use long gliding strokes that flow over the entire body, starting at the feet and moving up onto the torso then down the arms, as shown in Figure 11-13. This is the lightest kind of long-soft-light gliding, not meant to actually affect the tissues beneath the skin, but rather to send your partner a message of connection (see the sidebar, "Creating wholeness," earlier in this chapter).

You don’t have to wait until the end of the massage to use Connective strokes. In fact, you can use them throughout the entire massage to connect everything together. Starting an arm? Connect it to the neck you just finished a moment earlier. Go ahead, experiment. Connect away! The point is to make your partner feel that you’re treating his body as a whole, not segmenting it into chunks.

Figure 11-13.

Whole-body connective strokes create a sense of wholeness and continuity for your partner at the end of a massage.

Figure 11-14:

Placing your hands softly on two areas also creates a sensation of connection.

Putting the Moves Together

2. To finish your massage, place one hand on your partner’s forehead and the other gently upon his belly, letting them rest there in contact, but without pressure, for 30 to 60 seconds, as shown in Figure 11-14. You may begin to feel his pulse, or some warmth emanating from his body. This is good. Just tune in to whatever it is you’re feeling and, for just these last few seconds, make sure your partner knows he’s the center of the universe.

This type of intentional hand placement to balance your partner’s inner energy is known in some quarters as Polarity.

The last moment of the massage is as important as the first. When you finally break contact with your partner for the last time, make it a conscious, gentle letting go.

In This Chapter

Understanding how common strategies can maintain (and worsen) your problems Examining and eliminating safety behaviours ^ Understanding why doing the opposite of your current strategies can help you

The first step in any kind of problem-solving is to Define The problem. This chapter is about assessing your problems and putting your finger on the ways in which your current coping strategies are part of your specific problem.

Often, the problematic behaviours that maintain or worsen emotional problems are the very behaviours that people use to help themselves cope – hence the common CBT expression ‘your solution is the problem’.

The reality is that you probably weren’t taught how to best tackle emotional problems such as anxiety, depression, and obsessions. We confess that even though we have been trained in the art of emotional problem-solving, when it comes to dealing with our own emotions, we can still manage to get it wrong.

In this chapter, we guide you towards identifying the fact that your coping strategies may make you feel better in the short-term but that they are actually counterproductive – and that they can make things worse in the long-term.

When Feeling Better Can Make \lour Problems Worse

Aaron Beck, founder of CBT and Dennis Greenberger, a well-known CBT therapist, note that, if you can turn a counterproductive strategy on its head, you’re well on the way to a real solution. This concept basically means that by doing the polar opposite of your established coping strategies you can

Recover from your problems. Exposing yourself to feared situations rather than avoiding them is a good example of turning a counterproductive strategy on its head. The more you avoid situations that you fear, the more afraid you become of ever encountering feared situations. Avoidance also undermines your sense of being able to cope with unpleasant or uncomfortable events. For example, never using a lift may temporarily stop your anxious feelings about being in an enclosed space, but avoiding lifts does not help you to overcome your fear of enclosed spaces once and for all.

Windy Dryden, who trained us in CBT, coined the phrase ‘Feel better, get worse. Feel worse, get better’ when referring to people overcoming emotional problems. Many of the things that you may be doing that actually maintain your current problems, are driven by a highly understandable goal to reduce your distress. However, when you aim to get short-term relief, you often end up reinforcing the very beliefs and behaviours that underpin your problems.

One of the most powerful ways of changing your emotions in a lasting way, is to act against your unhelpful beliefs and to act on your alternative helpful beliefs (Chapters 3 and 14 contain more information about forming alternative healthy beliefs).

Here are some further examples of what we mean by Problem-maintaining solutions:

Avoiding situations that you fear or that provoke anxiety. Avoidance tends to erode rather than boost your confidence. You remain afraid of the situations you avoid, thus you don’t give yourself a chance to confront and overcome your fears.

Drinking alcohol or taking drugs to block out uncomfortable feelings.

Often, those bad feelings persist in the long term, and you end up with the added problem of the effect of the alcohol or drugs (hangover, comedown). Also, you have the potential to develop a newproblem – substance dependence.

Concealing aspects of yourself that cause you shame. Hiding things about yourself – such as imperfections in your appearance, childhood experiences, mistakes from the past, or current psychological difficulties – can make you feel chronically insecure that someone may ‘find you out’. Hiding shameful aspects of your experiences also denies you the opportunity to find out that other people have similar experiences, and that they won’t think any less of you for revealing your secrets.

Putting off dealing with problems or tasks until you’re in the mood.

If you wait to take action until ‘the right time’, until you ‘feel like it’, or when you feel sufficiently inspired, you may wait a very long time. Putting off essential tasks may save you some discomfort in the short term, but undone tasks also tend to weigh heavily on your mind.

The following sections deal with common counterproductive strategies for coping with common psychological problems. We explain that doing what makes you feel briefly better may be perpetuating your problem.

Getting Over depression Without Getting \loursetf Dou/n

If you’re feeling depressed, you’re likely to be less active and may withdraw from social contact. Inactivity and social withdrawal are often attempts to cope with depressed feelings, but they can reduce the positive reinforcement you get from life, increase isolation, increase fatigue, lead to the build-up of problems or chores, and leave you feeling guilty.

For example, if you’ve been feeling depressed for some time, you may use a number of ultimately negative strategies to relieve your depression:

To avoid feeling ashamed about being depressed, you may avoid seeing friends. This coping strategy leaves you feeling more isolated and means you don’t get the support you need.

To avoid being irritable around your partner or children, you may try to minimise contact with them. Your children may become unruly, your relationship with your partner may suffer, and you may end up feeling guilty about not spending time with any of them.

To avoid the embarrassment of making mistakes at work, you may stop going to work on a regular basis.

To cope with feeling tired and to get some relief from your depression, you may take naps during the day. Unfortunately, napping can disrupt your sleeping pattern, leading to even more fatigue.

To see how your depression is affecting your activity levels, record a typical week on the Activity schedule In Chapter 10 (and Appendix B). Then, as we explain in Chapter 10, combat depression by scheduling your activities and rest periods (but not naps because napping during the day can disrupt night time sleeping) for each day, and gradually build up your activity levels over time.

Loosening \lour Grip on Control

Letting go of control is an especially relevant skill if you have any sort of anxiety problems, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). But, it also applies to other types of emotional problems, such as anger and jealousy.

Here are some common examples of how you may be gripping too hard on to the controls:

Trying to limit your body’s physical sensations because you believe that certain bodily symptoms will result in harm to yourself. For example, ‘If I don’t stop feeling dizzy, I’ll pass out.’

Trying to control and monitor your thoughts because you think that if they get out of control, you’ll go crazy.

Suppressing upsetting thoughts, doubts, or images because you believe that allowing them to enter your mind will cause harm to yourself or others. (This characteristic is very typical of OCD – check out Chapter 11 for more info.)

Trying to control your body’s physical reactions to anxiety, such as trembling hands, blushing, or sweating, because you think that others will judge you harshly if they notice your symptoms.

Trying to control the uncontrollable is destined to leave you feeling powerless and ineffective. Instead of striving for control, look to change your attitude about needing control by accepting the discomfort of certain types of thoughts or bodily sensations (head to Chapter 9 for more information).

If you try too hard to gain immediate control, you often end up:

Focusing more on feeling out of control, thus making yourself feel even more powerless than you did to start with.

Putting pressure on yourself to control symptoms and thoughts that aren’t within your control, thus making yourself feel more anxious.

Concluding that something must be deeply wrong with you because you can’t keep symptoms under control, thus making yourself feel more anxious, and experience more racing thoughts and unpleasant physical sensations.

The next time you feel anxious in a public place or find yourself blushing, sweating, or having disturbing thoughts, put the concepts in this section to the test by trying harder to stop yourself from having those thoughts, blushing, or sweating. Chances are that you’ll find your efforts produce even more of the thoughts and sensations you’re trying so hard to control.

Feeling Secure in an Uncertain World

The need for certainty is a common contributing factor in anxiety, obsessional problems, and jealousy.

Unfortunately, the only things you can be 100 per cent sure of, as the saying goes, are birth, death, and taxes. Over and above that, humans live in a pretty uncertain universe. Of course, many things are predictable and pretty sure bets, like the sun rising in the morning and setting in the evening. However, other things in life are much more uncertain. ‘Will I be pretty?’ ‘Will I be rich?’ ‘Will I live to a ripe old age surrounded by grandchildren and a few cats?’ Que sera, sera. Whatever will be, will be.

Trying to get rid of doubt by seeking unattainable certainty is like trying to put out a fire by throwing more wood on it. If you’re intolerant of uncertainty, as soon as you quell one doubt another one’s sure to pop up. The trick is to find ways to tolerate doubt and uncertainty – they exist whether you like it or not.

Here are some examples of how your demands for certainty may be reflected in your behaviour:

Frequent requests for reassurance. Constantly asking yourself and other people questions, such as ‘Is it safe to touch the door handle without washing my hands?’, ‘Do you find that person more attractive than me?’, ‘Do you think I’ll pass the exam?’, or ‘Are you sure I won’t get mugged if I go out?’ are all efforts to find some reassurance in an uncertain world. Unfortunately, excessive reassurance-seeking can reduce your confidence in your own judgement.

Repeated checking behaviours. Checking behaviours are actions you perform in an effort to create more certainty in your world. Such actions include checking several times that your doors and windows are locked, frequently asking your partner where they’ve been, seeing lots of different doctors to ensure that a physical sensation isn’t a sign of serious illness, and going over conversations in your mind to be sure that you haven’t said anything offensive. The irony is that the more you check, the more uncertain you feel. Excessive checking can be very time consuming, tiring, and can lower your mood.

Superstitious rituals. Superstitious rituals are things that you do to try to keep yourself safe or to prevent bad things from happening. Typically, superstitious rituals are not directly related to whatever it is that you fear most. Examples of rituals include touching wood, repeating phrases in your mind, wearing lucky clothes or jewellery, and avoiding unlucky numbers, out of a faulty belief that these rituals will stop unfortunate or tragic events befalling yourself or your loved ones. Engaging in superstitious behaviours can lead you to conclude that the ritual has prevented bad things from happening, rather than help you understand that many bad events are unlikely to occur regardless of whether you perform a ritual or not.

Avoiding risk. Risks – such as global tragedies, becoming ill, having an accident, making poor decisions, or committing a social faux pas – are unavoidable and are ever-present. You may be trying to eliminate risk by staying home or in ‘safe’ places, eating only certain foods, never deviating from set routines, overplanning for trips away, or overpreparing for unlikely events such as war, plague, or famine. In fact, risk is a part of life and can only be avoided to a limited extent. The more you try to eliminate all risk from your life, the more you’re likely to focus on all the possible things that could go wrong. You’re fighting a losing battle and are likely to undermine your sense of security even further. Focusing too much on the risks inherent in every day life will leave you chronically worried and cause you to overestimate the probability of bad things happening to you.

Trying to influence others. Examples of influencing others’ behaviour include, encouraging your partner to socialise only with members of the same sex, persuading your children to stay at home rather than go out with their friends, and asking your doctor to send you for another test. Demanding that other people act in ways to minimise your intolerance of uncertainty and risk can seriously damage your relationships. People close to you are likely to perceive you as controlling or suspicious.

Try to understand that uncertainty has always been a major feature of the world, and that people still manage to keep themselves safe and secure. You don’t need to change the world to feel secure. You simply need to accept uncertainty and live with it. You Can Happily coexist with uncertainty – it’s always been that way. Remind yourself that ordinary people cope with bad events every day and that you are likely to cope as well as others do if something wicked your way comes.

The next section deals with accepting uncertainty and letting go of unhelpful coping strategies.

Surmounting the Side Effects of Excessive Safety-Seeking

One of the main ways in which you maintain emotional problems is by rescuing yourself from your imagined catastrophes. Often, these anticipated disasters are products of your worried mind, rather than real or probable events. People with specific anxiety problems, such as the ones listed in this section, often take measures to reduce their anxiety and increase their sense of safety, but in effect make themselves even more intolerant of the inevitable uncertainty of everyday life.

The actions that people take to prevent their feared catastrophes from occurring are called Safety behaviours.

Avoiding, escaping, or trying too hard to stop a feared catastrophe prevents you from realising three key things:

Your feared event may never happen.

If your feared event Does Happen, most likely you’ll find ways to cope. For example, other people or organisations may be available to help you out.

The feared event may well be inconvenient, uncomfortable, upsetting, and deeply unpleasant, but rarely is it terrible or unbearable.

Anxiety affects your thinking in two key ways, it leads you to overestimate the probability and gravity of danger, and leads you to underestimate your ability to overcome adversity. Of course you want to keep yourself as safe as possible. But sometimes you may try to keep yourself safe from events that really aren’t that dangerous.

Additionally, some of the things that you do to eliminate risk and safeguard yourself may actually result in more discomfort and disturbance than necessary – using ultimately unhelpful strategies to avoid feared outcomes is very prevalent in anxiety disorders. Here are some examples of counterproductive safety behaviours that you might be using to cope with specific anxiety problems:

Panic attacks: Michael’s panic attacks are maintained by his fear that feeling dizzy will make him collapse. Whenever he feels dizzy, he takes a sip of water, sits down, or holds on to something. In this way, he prevents himself from finding out that he won’t collapse simply because he feels dizzy.

Social anxiety: Sally tends to overprepare what she’s going to say before she actually says it. She monitors her speech and body language and reviews in her mind what she did and said when she gets home. In this way, she maintains her excessive self-consciousness.

Post-traumatic stress: Since she had a car accident, Nina avoids motorways, grips tightly on to the steering wheel when driving in her car, repeatedly checks the rear-view mirror, and avoids being a car passenger. Because she’s being so careful, her anxiety about having another accident remains at the forefront of her mind.

Agoraphobia: Georgina’s afraid of travelling far from her home or familiar places for fear of losing control of her bowels and soiling herself. She has become almost housebound, and she relies heavily on her husband to drive her around. This means that she doesn’t go out on her own and never discovers that her fears are unfounded.

Fear of heights: James is afraid of heights because he believes that the ‘pulling’ sensation he experiences in high places means that he’s at risk of unintentionally throwing himself to his death. To cope with this sensation, he digs his heels firmly into the ground and leans slightly backwards to resist his feelings. He also tries to avoid high places as much as he can. These behaviours fuel his fear and leave him believing that somehow he’s more at risk than other people in high places.

After you’ve drawn up a list of your avoidance and safety behaviours, you can have a better understanding of what areas you need to target for change. In essence, the real solution to your problem lies in exposing yourself to feared situations without using any safety behaviours. You can then see that you are able to cope with anxiety-provoking events and that you need not rely on distractions or spurious attempts to keep yourself safe. Give yourself the chance to see that your anxiety is not harmful in itself and that anxious feelings diminish if you let them do so of their own accord. (Chapter 9 contains more information about dealing with safety behaviours and devising exposures.)

Wending \lour Way Out of Worry

One of the dilemmas faced by people who worry too much is how to reduce that worry. Some degree of worry is entirely normal – of course problems and responsibilities will cross your mind from time to time. Yet, you may be someone who worries all of the time. Being a true worrywart is intensely uncomfortable. Understandably, you may want to stop worrying quite so much.

Two reasons may account for your excessive worrying:

You may think that by worrying about unpleasant events, you can prevent those events from happening. Or, you may believe that your worry can give you clues as to how to prevent negative events from coming to fruition.

You may think that worry protects you by preparing you for negative events. You may believe that if you worry about bad things enough, they won’t catch you off guard and you’ll be better fixed to deal with them.

If you can convince yourself that excessive worry really doesn’t prevent feared events from happening or prepare you for dealing with bad things, you may be in a better position to interrupt your repetitive cycle of worries.

Ironically, many people worry about things in a vain attempt to get all possible worries out of the way so they can then relax. Of course, this never happens – worry’s a moveable feast, and something else always comes along for you to worry about.

If you worry excessively about everyday events, you may try to solve every possible upcoming problem in advance of it happening. You may hope that your worry will solve potential problems, and thus you won’t have to worry about them any more.

Unfortunately, trying too hard to put your mind at rest can lead to increased mental activity and yet more worry. All too often, people then worry that worrying so much is harmful, and they end up worrying about worrying!

Try to see your worrying as a bad habit. Instead of focusing on the Content Of your worries, try to interrupt the worry Process By engaging your mind and body in activities outside of yourself. Chapter 5 has some helpful hints on refocusing your attention away from you actively worrying.

Preventing the Perpetuation of l/our Problems

Sometimes, the things you do to cope with your problems can bring about the very things that you’re trying to avoid. An example of this is when you try to push upsetting thoughts out of your mind. Pushing away unpleasant thoughts is called Thought suppression, And can generally make unwanted thoughts intrude more often. Research shows that when people try to suppress an unwanted thought, it can intrude into their mind twice as often than if they accept the thought and let it pass.

Close your eyes and try really hard not to think of a pink elephant. Just for a minute, really push any images of pink elephants out of your mind. What happened? Most people notice that all they can think of are pink elephants. This demonstrates that trying to get rid of thoughts by pushing them out of your mind usually results in them hanging around more persistently.

Trying too hard not to do, feel, or think specific things, and attempting to prevent certain events, can actually bring about what you most fear and wish to avoid. For example:

Trying too hard not to make a fool of yourself in social situations can make you seem aloof and uninterested.

Trying too hard to make sure a piece of work is perfect can lead you to overrunning a deadline, or you get so nervous that you produce poor work.

Insisting that you must succeed at a task, like passing an exam or learning a skill, makes you concentrate too much on How well You’re doing and not enough on What You’re doing. This misplaced attention focus can lead to poor results.

Feeling jealous and repeatedly checking up on your partner, testing them or demanding reassurance that they’re not about to leave you, can potentially drive your partner away.

Lying in bed, trying to deal with fatigue when you’re depressed, can lower your mood further and may lead to feelings of shame and guilt about your inactivity.

Helping \lourself: Putting the Petals on ]lour Vicious Flotfer

The Vicious flower exercise Is a way of putting together different elements of your problem to aid your understanding of how your problem is maintained. Look at the example in Figure 7-1, and turn to Appendix B for a blank flower to photocopy and fill in. Follow these steps to fill in your own vicious flower:

1. In the Trigger box, write down the trigger that makes you feel anxious or upset.

2. In the central circle, write down the key thoughts and meanings you attach to the trigger.

3. In the flower petals, write down the emotions, behaviours, and sensations you experience when your uncomfortable feeling is triggered. In the top petal, write down what you tend to focus on.

Key negative thoughts, attitudes, or beliefs are at the heart of your vicious flower. The petals are your attentional, emotional, physical, and behavioural responses to the meaning you have attached to the trigger.

This chapter (and Chapter 6) gives you the kinds of emotions, behaviours, attention focus, and thoughts that you can fill in your petals with. If you suffer from anxiety, read Chapter 9; Chapter 10 for depression; Chapter 11 if you have an obsessional problem; and Chapter 13 for an anger problem.

One of the most important aspects of building a vicious flower is to think through how the petals affect the thought or ‘meaning’ that underpins your emotional problem. For example, the effect of anxiety on your thinking is to make you more likely to interpret experiences as more dangerous than they really are. The effect of depression is to make your thinking more gloomy and negative (refer to Chapter 6 for more on these and other emotions).

Focussing your attention on a sensation usually makes the sensation feel more intense. Acting upon an unhelpful thought or meaning usually makes the meaning seem more real. Unpleasant physical sensations accompanying

Your reaction can make upsetting thoughts seem even more real. You can design behavioural experiments to test out the effect of increasing or lessening a behaviour on your problems (refer to Chapter 4).

When you understand the mechanisms that maintain your problems, it will seem far more practical and sensible to target your petals for change.

The ‘physical sensations’ petal is the aspect of your problem that you’re least able to change directly because physical sensations are outside your immediate conscious control. However, you can minimise the impact of physical sensations by learning to tolerate them whilst you overcome your problem, and

To interpret them as no more dangerous than they really are.

Put down that shovel and empty out your pockets!

One of the best metaphors for the kinds of behaviour we discuss in this chapter is the idea that some of your coping strategies may be like unwittingly trying to dig your way out of a hole. Naturally, the first step to overcoming your problems is to put down the shovel – to stop your self-defeating strategies, and gradually work out more productive ways of overcoming your emotional problems.

Over time, you may seek out bigger and better shovels in the guise of bigger and better avoidance and safety behaviours. We regularly invite those of our clients who suffer with agoraphobia, panic attacks, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and body dysmorphic disorder, to share with us the contents of their pockets or handbags, which is often very illuminating. Examples of Safety props That people carry’just in case’ include, over-the-counter drugs, packets of

Tissues, antiseptic wipes, glucose sweets, handheld fans, make-up, plastic bags, paper bags, deodorant sprays, laxatives, and alcohol.

To help clients eliminate safety behaviours, we often encourage them to throw out or hand over these seemingly innocent everyday items in the spirit of getting rid of problematic solutions. Go through your pockets and handbag and collect all of your safety props. Throw them in the bin or hand them over to someone who knows about your problems and has an interest in helping you (this person can be anyone in your life if you are not currently seeing a CBT therapist). Be wary of purchasing or accumulating items to replace what you’ve already handed over or tossed away. Work on the basis that you only need essentials in your purse and pockets such as money, keys, and travel cards.

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Chemists always begin a discussion about moles with Avogadro’s number. They do this for two reasons. First, it makes sense to start the discussion with the way the mole was originally defined. Second, it’s a sufficiently large number to intimidate the unworthy.

Still, for all its primacy and intimidating size, Avogadro’s number quickly grows tedious in everyday use. More interesting is the fact that one mole of a pure Monatomic Substance (in other words, a substance that always appears as a single atom) turns out to possess exactly its atomic mass’s worth of grams. In other words, one mole of monatomic hydrogen weighs about 1 gram. One mole of monatomic helium weighs about 4 grams. The same is true no matter where you wander through the corridors of the periodic table. The number listed as the atomic mass of an element equals that element’s Molar mass If the element is monatomic.

Of course, chemistry involves the making and breaking of bonds (as you find out in Chapter 5), so talk of pure monatomic substances gets you only so far. How lucky, then, that calculating the mass per mole of a complex molecule is essentially no different than finding the mass per mole of a monatomic element. For example, one molecule of glucose (C6H12O6) is assembled from 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms. To calculate the number of grams per mole of a complex molecule (such as glucose), simply do the following:

1. Multiply the number of atoms per mole of the first element by its atomic mass.

In this case, the first element is carbon, and you’d multiply its atomic mass, 12, by the number of atoms, 6.

2. Multiply the number of atoms per mole of the second element by its atomic mass.

Here, you multiply hydrogen’s atomic mass of 1 by the number of hydrogen atoms, 12.

3. Multiply the number of atoms per mole of the third element by its atomic mass. Keep going until you’ve covered all the elements in the molecule.

The third element in glucose is oxygen, so you multiply 16, the atomic mass, by 6, the number of oxygen atoms.

Finally, add the masses together.

In this example, (12g mol-1 X 6) + (1g mol-1 X 12) + (16g mol-1 X 6) = 180g mol-1.

4.

This kind of quantity, called the Gram molecular mass, Is exceptionally convenient for chemists, who are much more inclined to measure the mass of a substance than to count all of the millions or billions of individual particles that make it up.

If chemists don’t try to intimidate you with large numbers, they may attempt to do so by throwing around big words. For example, chemists may distinguish between the molar masses of pure elements, molecular compounds, and ionic compounds by referring to them as the Gram atomic mass, gram molecular mass, And Gram formula mass, Respectively. Don’t be fooled! The basic concept behind each is the same: molar mass.

It’s all very good to find the mass of a solid or liquid and then go about calculating the number of moles in that sample. But what about gases? Let’s not engage in phase discrimination; gases are made of matter, too, and their moles have the right to stand and be counted. Fortunately, there’s a convenient way to convert between the moles of gaseous particles and their Volume. Unlike gram atomic/molecular/formula masses, this conversion factor is constant No matter what kinds of molecules make up the gas. Every gas has a volume of 22.4 liters per mole, regardless of the size of the gaseous molecules.

Before you start your hooray-chemistry-is-finally-getting-simple dance, however, understand that certain conditions apply to this conversion factor. For example, it’s only true at Standard temperature and pressure (STP), Or 0° Celsius and 1 atm. Also, the figure of 22.4L mol-1 applies only to the extent that a gas resembles an ideal gas, one whose particles have zero volume and neither attract nor repel one another. Ultimately, no gas is truly ideal, but many are so close to being so that the 22.4L mol-1 conversion is very useful.

Q.

A.

What if you want to convert between the volume of a gaseous substance and its mass, or the mass of a substance and the number of particles it contains? You already have all the information you need! To make these kinds of conversions, simply build a chain of conversion factors, converting units step by step from the ones you have (say, liters) to the ones you want (say, grams). You’ll find that your chain of conversion factors always includes central links featuring units of moles. You can think of the mole as a family member who passes on what you’ve said, loudly barking into the ear of your nearly deaf grandmother, because you have laryngitis and can’t speak any louder. Without such a central translator, your message would no doubt be misinterpreted. "Grandma, how was your day?" would be received as "Grandma, you want to eat clay?" So, unless you’re bent on force-feeding clay to your grandmother, do not attempt to convert directly from volume to mass, from mass to particles, or any other such shortcut. Use your translator, the mole.

On her last day of work before retirement, Dr. Dentura daydreams about her newly purchased condo in Florida. Distracted, Dr. Dentura forgets to turn off the dinitrogen monoxide (laughing gas) after administering it to a root canal patient. The gas flows, filling 10 percent of the room, until her dental hygienist notices the hissing and nonchalantly turns off the gas. Being denser than air, the laughing gas settles near the floor so the dentist doesn’t notice. How many moles of dinitrogen monoxide escaped into the room? Assume that Dr. Dentura suffers from frequent hot flashes and therefore keeps her office at a chilly 0°C. Further assume that her exam room is a spacious 10-x-10-x-10-foot cube.

126 mol. The problem tells you that the exam room is at standard temperature, and because the good doctor is presumably operating somewhere on the surface of the earth, it’s safe to assume that the local pressure is somewhere around 1 atm. Having assured yourself that the room is at STP, you can safely use the 22.4L mol-1 conversion factor. To use it effectively, you must convert the volume of the room into liters. You know that the room has a volume of 10 ft X 10 ft X 10 ft = 1,000 ft3. You also know that the dinitrogen oxide gas fills 10 percent of the room, and so accounts for 100 ft3. Convert from cubic feet to liters, referring if you like to Chapter 2 for the conversion factor:

100 ft3 1

;12in) (1ft )3

(2.54 cm)

X 1mL x

1L

1in)

1cm3 1000 mL

2.83 X103L

Then convert this volume in liters to moles by using the STP conversion factor of 22.4L mol-1:

2.83 x103L 1 mol

1

22.4L

126 mol

X

Q. Supervillain Lex Luthor accidentally purchases a vessel containing 0.05 kg of krypton, mistaking it for kryptonite, from an online retailer. Kryptonite, of course, is a glowing, green, and entirely fictional solid capable of utterly destroying Luthor’s arch nemesis, Superman. Krypton, by contrast, is a relatively innocuous noble gas. What’s the volume of Lex Luthor’s unhelpful vessel, assuming that it was meticulously filled to only atmospheric pressure and is shipped on ice?

A. 13.4L. You’re given a mass and are asked to convert it to a volume. Ice keeps the vessel at a temperature near 0°C, and you’re assured that the internal pressure of the vessel is 1 atm. So, you can assume STP. First, convert from grams to moles by using the gram atomic mass (in this case, 83.8g). Then convert from moles to volume, as shown in the following equation. The answer is 13.4 liters. That’s nearly 4 gallons of useless noble gas, an embarrassing error for a supervillain.

0.05 kg x 1000g x 1mol x 22^L = 13 4L 1 1kg 83.8g 1mol

4. How many moles make up 350g of table salt, NaCl?

Solve It

5. The average volume of a human breath is roughly 500 mL. How many moles do you inhale with each breath on a day when the temperature hovers near freezing? Assuming that human exhalations eventually intermix evenly throughout the approximately 3 x 1022L of Earth’s atmosphere, calculate how many molecules from Genghis Khan’s last breath you take into your lungs each time you inhale.

Solve It

6. In pounds, what is the mass of 3 moles of platinum?

Solve It

7. If you fill a 2L soda bottle (at STP) with

Carbon dioxide, how many particles does the bottle contain?

Solve It

Giving Credit Where It’s Due: Percent Composition

Chemists often are concerned with precisely what percentage of a compound’s mass consists of one particular element. Lying awake at night, uttering prayers to Avogadro, they fret over this quantity, called Percent composition. Calculating percent composition is trickier than you may think. Consider the following problem, for example.

The human body is composed of 60 to 70 percent water, and water contains twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms. If two-thirds of every water molecule is hydrogen and water makes up 60 percent of the body, it seems logical to conclude that hydrogen makes up 40 percent of the body. Yet hydrogen is only the third most abundant element in the body By mass. What gives?

Oxygen is 16 times more massive than hydrogen. So, equating Atoms Of hydrogen and Atoms Of oxygen is a bit like equating a toddler to a sumo wrestler. When the doors of the elevator won’t close, the sumo wrestler is the first one you should kick out, weep though he may.

Within a compound, it’s important to sort out the atomic toddlers from the atomic sumo wrestlers. To do so, follow three simple steps.

1. Calculate the gram molecular mass or gram formula mass of the compound, as we explain in the previous section.

Percent compositions are completely irrelevant to gram atomic masses, because these apply only to pure monatomic substances; by definition, these substance have 100 percent composition of a given element.

2. Multiply the atomic mass of each element present in the compound by the number of atoms of that element present in one molecule.

3. Divide each of the masses calculated in Step 2 by the total mass calculated in Step 1. Multiply each fractional quotient by 100%. Voila! You have the Percent composition By mass of each element in the compound.

Calculate the percent composition for each element present in sodium sulfate, Na2SO4. Na: 32.4%, S: 22.5%, O: 45.1%. The gram formula mass of sodium sulfate is

(2 X 23.0g mol-1) + (1 X 32.0g mol-1) + (4 X 16.0g mol-1) = 142g mol-1.

Of each mole of compound,

2 X 23.0g = 46.0g are sodium

1 X 32.0g = 32.0g are sulfur

4 X 16.0g = 64.0g are oxygen

Dividing each of these quantities by the molar mass of sodium sulfate (142g) yields the percent composition:

46g 32g 64g

, ° x 100 = 32.4% sodium, ° X 100 = 22.5% sulfur, and ° X 100 = 45.1% oxygen 142g 142g 142g

As a check, add the three percentages to ensure they equal 100%: 32.4% + 22.5% + 45.1% = 100%.

8. Calculate the percent composition of potassium chromate, K2CrO4.

9. Calculate the percent composition of propane, C3H8.

Solve It ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H

Solve It

Moving from Percent Composition to Empirical Formulas

What if you don’t know the formula of a compound? Chemists sometimes find themselves in this disconcerting scenario. Rather than curse Avogadro (or perhaps After Doing so), they analyze samples of the frustrating unknown to identify the percent composition. From there, they calculate the ratios of different types of atoms in the compound. They express these ratios as an Empirical formula, The lowest whole number ratio of elements in a compound.

To find an empirical formula given percent composition, use the following procedure:

1. Assume that you have 100g of the unknown compound.

The beauty of this little trick is that you conveniently gift yourself with the same number of grams of each elemental component as its contribution to the percent composition. For example, if you assume that you have 100g of a compound composed of 60.3% magnesium and 39.7% oxygen, you know that you have 60.3g of magnesium and 39.7g of oxygen.

2. Convert the assumed masses from Step 1 into moles by using gram atomic masses.

3. Divide each of the element-by-element mole quantities from Step 2 by the lowest among them.

This division yields the mole ratios of the elements of the compound.

4. If any of your mole ratios aren’t whole numbers, multiply all numbers by the smallest possible factor that produces whole number mole ratios for all the elements.

For example, if there is 1 nitrogen atom for every 0.5 oxygen atom in a compound, the empirical formula is not N1O0.5. Such a formula casually suggests that an oxygen atom has been split, something that would create a small-scale nuclear explosion. Though impressive sounding, this scenario is almost certainly false. Far more likely is that the atoms of nitrogen to oxygen are combining in a 1:0.5 Ratio, But do so in groups of 2 X (1:0.5) = 2:1. The empirical formula is thus N2O.

Because the original percent composition data is typically experimental, expect to see a bit of error in the numbers. For example, 2.03 is probably within experimental error of 2.

5. Write the empirical formula by attaching these whole-number mole ratios as subscripts to the chemical symbol of each element. Order the elements according to the general rules for naming ionic and molecular compounds (described in Chapter 6).

Q. What is the empirical formula of a substance that is 40.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen, and 53.3% oxygen, by mass?

A. CH2O. For the sake of simplicity, assume that you have a total of 100g of this mystery compound. Therefore, you have 40.0g of carbon, 6.7g of hydrogen, and 53.3g of oxygen. Convert each of these masses to moles by using the gram atomic masses of C, H, and O.

40.0g C 1molC

-r2— x —77-—— = 3.33 mol C

1 12g C

6.7g H x 1mol H 1 1g H

6.7 mol H

53.3g O x 1mol O 1 16g O

3.33 mol O

Notice that the carbon and oxygen mole numbers are the same, so you know the ratio of these two elements is 1:1 within the compound. Next, divide all the mole numbers by the smallest among them, which is 3.33. This division yields

3.33mol C

3.33

1mol C,

6.70mol H 3.33

2molH, and

3.33mol O

- :

3.33

1molO

The compound has the empirical formula CH2O. The actual number of atoms within each particle of the compound is some multiple of the numbers expressed in this formula.

10. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound with a percent composition of 88.9% oxygen and 11.1% hydrogen.

11. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound with a percent composition of 40.0% sulfur and 60.0% oxygen.

Solve It

Solve It

Moving from Empirical Formulas to Molecular Formulas

111

Many compounds in nature, particularly compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are composed of atoms that occur in numbers that are multiples of their empirical formula. In other words, their empirical formulas don’t reflect the actual numbers of atoms within them, but only the ratios of those atoms. What a nuisance! Fortunately, this is an old nuisance, so chemists have devised a means to deal with it. To account for these annoying types of compounds, chemists are careful to differentiate between an empirical formula and a Molecular formula. A molecular formula uses subscripts that report the actual number of atoms of each type in a molecule of the compound (a Formula unit Accomplishes the same thing for ionic compounds).

Molecular formulas are associated with gram molecular masses that are simple whole number multiples of the corresponding Empirical formula mass. In other words, a molecule with the empirical formula CH2O has an empirical formula mass of 30.0g mol-1 (12 for the carbon + 2 for the two hydrogens + 16 for the oxygen). The molecule may have a molecular formula of CH2O, C2H4O2, C3H6O3, and so on. As a result, the compound may have a gram molecular mass of 30.0g mol-1, 60.0g mol-1, 90.0g mol-1, and so on.

You can’t calculate a molecular formula based on percent composition alone. If you attempt to do so, Avogadro and Perrin will rise from their graves, find you, and slap you 6.022 X 1023 times per cheek (Ooh, that smarts!). The folly of such an approach is made clear by comparing formaldehyde with glucose. The two compounds have the same empirical formula, CH2O, but different molecular formulas, CH2O and C6H12O6, respectively. Glucose is a simple sugar, the one made by photosynthesis and the one broken down during cellular respiration. You can dissolve it into your coffee with pleasant results. Formaldehyde is a carcinogenic component of smog. Solutions of formaldehyde have historically been used to embalm dead bodies. You are not advised to dissolve formaldehyde into your coffee. In other words, molecular formulas differ from empirical formulas, and the difference is important.

To determine a molecular formula, you must know the gram formula mass of the compound as well as the empirical formula (or enough information to calculate it yourself from the percent composition; see the previous section for details). With these tools in hand, calculating the molecular formula involves a three-step process:

1. Calculate the empirical formula mass.

2. Divide the gram molecular mass by the empirical formula mass.

3. Multiply each of the subscripts within the empirical formula by the number calculated in Step 2.

Q. What is the molecular formula of a compound which has a gram molecular mass of 34g mol-1 and the empirical formula HO.

A. H2O2. The empirical formula mass is

1g mol-1 + 16g mol-1 = 17g mol-1.

Dividing the gram molecular mass by this value yields

34g mol-1/17g mol-1 = 2.

Multiplying the subscripts within the empirical formula by this number gives the molecular formula H2O2. This formula corresponds to the compound hydrogen peroxide.

12. What is the molecular formula of a compound which has a gram formula mass of 78g mol-1 and the empirical formula NaO.

Solve It

13. A compound has a percent composition of 49.5% carbon, 5.2% hydrogen, 16.5% oxygen, and 28.8% nitrogen. The compound’s gram molecular mass is 194.2g mol-1. What are the empirical and molecular formulas?

Solve It

Answers to Questions on Moles

The following are the answers to the practice problems presented in this chapter.

D 0.03 mol. Here’s how you calculate the answer (remember Chapter 1′s rules for multiplying and dividing in scientific notation):

1.5 X 1011 stars X 1.25 X 1011galaxies X 1mol stars

-1-i-X-—-X-23-

1 galaxy universe 6.022 X 10 stars

0.03 mol

Reflect on this answer. The entire universe contains only 3 percent of a mole of stars! Efl 2 X 10-6 mol. Here’s the calculation:

7 X 109 People X 2 X 108 insects X

1 mol

1

1person

6.022 X 1023 insects

0.000002 mol

Again, a number that nonchemists find unimaginably large comes out to the tiniest fraction of 1 mole.

CM 1.72 x 1015 atoms. First, find the total mass of carbon in the body by taking 23% of 150 kg, which equals 34.5 kg. Then convert those 34.5 kg to atoms by using the conversion factors given in the problem and the conversion between moles and atoms (which you already know):

34.5 kg X 83 mol X 6.022 X 1023 atoms C X 1 atom 14C

-1-x —Z—j-x-"- – x-12-■

1 1kg 1 mol C 1 X 1012 atoms C

= 1.72 X 1015 atoms

MM 6.0 mol. First, find the gram formula mass of sodium chloride using the same steps you used to calculate gram molecular mass. It’s 23g mol-1 + 35.5g mol-1 = 58.5g mol-1. Given the gram formula mass, the conversion is simple:

350g NaCl 1mol NaCl — 6 0 l I X r n r — 6.0 mol 1 58.5g NaCl

CM 0.02 mol; 0.2 particles. First, calculate how many moles of air you inhale with each breath:

0.5L X 1 mol 0 02 mol 1 22.4L

Next, calculate the number of particles in each mole of air that were once part of Genghis Khan’s final breath. Do this by finding the fraction of the atmosphere comprised by a single breath. Then, multiply that number by the number of particles in 1 mole:

0 5L 6.022 X 1023particles 1A.. . . -x–-— 10 particles per mole

3 1022L 1mol

That’s right — 10 particles in every mole of air on the planet were inhaled by the mighty Mongolian in his last scowling moment. Now, figure out how many of these particles you take in

When you inhale. Multiply the total number of inhaled moles by the number of Genghis-kissed particles per mole:

0.02 mol X 10 particles 02 particles 1 1mol

This means that, on average, one out of every five times you inhale, you breathe in a piece of East Asian history!

Ff 1.3 lb. Use your conversion factor techniques from Chapter 1 to convert moles to grams to pounds as shown in the following equation:

L^LEt X 1^ X If 1.3 lb 1 1mol Pt 453g

Gg 5.37 X 1022 particles. Use conversion factors to convert from liters to moles, and then moles to particles as shown in the following equation:

2L 1 mol 6.022 1023particles 22

X Ar. V, x-:—-— 5.37 X 10particles

1 22.4L 1mol

Hh K: 40.3%; Cr: 26.8%; O: 33.0%. First, calculate the gram molecular mass of potassium chro-mate, which comes to 194.2g mol-1:

(2 X 39.1g mol-1) + (1 X 52.0g mol-1) + (4 X 16.0g mol-1) = 194.2g mol-1

In a 100g sample, 78.2g are potassium, 52.0g are chromium, and 64.0g are oxygen. Divide each of these masses by the gram molecular mass, and multiply by 100 to get the percent composition. Note: If you’ve rounded your percentages properly, they don’t quite add to 100%, but rather 100.1%. If you had done away with rounding, you would have gotten exactly 100%. Rounding is common practice though, so don’t be too worried if your answer is off by a tenth or two.

78.2g x — 40 3% potassium 52.0g

194.2g

194.2g

X 100 26.8% chromium, and

64.0g 194.2g

100 —33.0% oxygen

EH C: 81.8%; H: 18.2%. The molecular mass of propane is (3 12.0g mol-1) + (8 1.0g mol-1) = 44g mol-1 The percent composition of propane is therefore:

36.0g 44.0g

X 100:

: 81.8% carbon and -80g – X 100 = 44.0g

18.2% hydrogen

Jj H2O. First, assume that you have 88.9g of oxygen and 11.1g of hydrogen in a 100g sample. Then convert each of these masses into moles by using the gram atomic masses of oxygen and hydrogen:

88.9g O 1mol O 5 55 l I X, ~ ^ 7~" 5.55 mol 1 16.0g O

11.1g H x 1mol H 1 1.0g H

11.1 mol

Next, divide each of these mole quantities by the smallest among them, 5.55 mol:

5.55molO, , „ ,11.1 molH „ …

1 mol O and–— 2mol H

5.55

5.55

Attach these quotients as subscripts and list the atoms properly. This yields H2O. The compound is water.

|f| SO3. Following the same procedure as in Question 10, you calculate 1.25 mol sulfur and

3.75 mol oxygen. Dividing each of these quantities by 1.25 mol (the smallest quantity) yields 1.25 / 1.25 = 1 mol of sulfur and 3.75 / 1.25 = 3 mol oxygen, or a mole ratio of 1:3. The compound is SO3, sulfur trioxide.

U Na2O2. First, find the empirical formula mass of NaO, which is

(1 x 23.0g mol-1) + (1 x 16.0g mol-1) = 39.0g mol-1

Then divide the gram formula mass of the mystery compound, 78g mol-1, by this empirical formula mass to obtain the quotient, 2. Multiply each of the subscripts within the empirical formula by this number to obtain Na2O2. You’ve just found the molecular formula for sodium peroxide.

C4H5N2O Is the empirical formula; C8H10N4O2 Is the molecular formula. You’re not directly given the empirical formula of this compound. But you Are Given the percent composition. Using the percent composition, you can calculate the empirical formula. To do this, assume that you have 100g of the substance, giving you 49.5g carbon, 5.2g hydrogen, 16.5g oxygen, and 28.8g nitrogen. Then divide these masses by the atomic mass of each element, giving you

49.5 / 12.0 = 4.125 mol carbon

5.2 / 1.0g = 5.2 mol hydrogen

16.5 / 16.0 = 1.031 mol oxygen

28.8 / 14.0 = 2.057 mol nitrogen

Finally, divide each of these mole values by the lowest among them, 1.031, giving you 4.0 mol carbon, 5.0 mol hydrogen, 1.0 mol oxygen, and 2.0 mol nitrogen, giving you the empirical formula C4H5N2O.

Here’s how you get the molecular formula: The empirical formula mass is 97.1g mol-1 (calculated by multiplying the number of atoms of each element in the compound by its atomic mass and adding them all up). Dividing the gram molecular mass you were given (194.2g mol-1) by this empirical formula mass yields the quotient, 2. Multiplying each of the subscripts in the empirical formula by 2 produces the molecular formula, C8H10N4O2. The common name for this culturally important compound is caffeine.

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